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Important events in the development of reflexology
This calendar in Box 1.1 outlines some important medical events from ancient history to the present day, showing how it may appertain to the whole theory of reflexology, and how the West and the East have something in common with this incredible therapy.
Box 1.1 Important Events in the Development of Reflexology
C2500 BC China – Beginnings of acupuncture in China
C2330 BC Egypt – Tomb of Ankhmahor built depicting representations of surgical operations, or treatment of hands and feet
C1558 BC China – Acupuncture in China became more refined
C500 BC Japan – Acupuncture reached Japan
AD 420 China – A bronze statue was cast showing the location of all the points of acupuncture
1582 Europe – First book of zone therapy published by Doctors Adamus and A’tatis
1776 Per Henrick Ling was noted for his gymnastics; lingism, as it was later known, was the treatment of disease with both active and passive moves
1800s Britain – Treatment by acupuncture was introduced into Britain and the term ‘reflex’ used by many medical men
Early 1800s Japan – Reiki, an ancient energy healing system based on very old Tibetan texts, arose from the teachings of Dr Mikao Usui; its theory was that the universal life energy was channelled through to the practitioner, who in turn conveyed it through the fingertips to those who needed it
1823 Britain – First issue of the Lancet was printed. A case of acupuncture treatment was reported. Successful treatment was carried out by a Dr Tweedale of Lyme Regis
1827 Britain – Acupuncture was used in the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh and St Thomas’s Hospital, London
Early 1800s Italy – Filippo Pacini (1812–83), an anatomist, discovered Pacinian corpuscles: sensory receptors in the skin particularly sensitive to changes of pressure, also found in joints and tendons. Angelo Ruffini (1864–1929), an anatomist, discovered Ruffini corpuscles, which record dermal distortions; they are cylindrical sensory organs that respond to pressure and warmth, found in finger pads, joints, tendons and tendon sheaths
Early 1800s Germany – Johannes Peter Müller (1801–58), a physiologist, proposed the principle of the law of specific irritability, the principle that each nerve is excited via sense organs responsive to a specific form of energy, and its excitation, because of its connections, can give rise to only one modality of sensation, regardless of whether the nerve is electrically or mechanically excited. Karl Ludwig Merkel (1812–76), an anatomist, discovered Merkel’s discs, tactile end-organs; these are slow-acting mechanoreceptors, responding when the tissue is stretched. George Meissner (1829–1905), a histologist, discovered Meissner’s plexus, a fine network of nerves in the wall of the alimentary canal, also Meissner’s corpuscles, found in the fingertips and lips
1880 Europe – Acupuncture was used in Europe. The connection could be the French Consul in China, Soulie de Morant, who became closely associated with Chinese philosophy. He studied the Chinese language and many ancient treatises on the subject. Many of them were thousands of years old and he translated them into French
Late 1800s Europe – From the latter part of the 1800s great strides were made by the medical profession in the study of reflexes. Many devices were used to deliver electrical stimuli to parts of the body. These were to establish the identity of nerves, such as whether they were sensory or motor. They also established, by the response raised, if a nerve or tract was damaged or absent. As these responsive actions indicate externally what is taking place within the body, it is my belief that we can send a message in on the same pathway
Late 1800s Germany – Mendel-Bekhterev reflex abnormal response was found showing dysfunction in the corticospinal tract; Kurt Mendel (1874–1946) was a neurologist. Hermann Oppenheim (1858–1936), a neurologist, found that when pressure is applied on the tibial crest there is a fanning of all the toes and an extension of the great toe. This is indicative of lesions within the pyramidal tract
Late 1800s USA – Charles Gilbert Chaddock (1861–1936), a neurologist, found that reflex extension of the great toe was induced by percussion on the external malleolar region and this was indicative of pyramidal tract lesion. Alfred Gordon (1874–1953), a neurologist, found the knee jerk reflex and extensor plantar response evident in pyramidal tract disease; this was produced when squeezing the calf muscles
1886 Russia – Vladimir Michailovich Bekhterev (1857–1927) led historical development in experimental methods of reflexology on animals and then the study of human behaviour
1886–7 Russia – Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936), a physiologist, studied conditioned reflex activity in dogs and received the Nobel Prize in 1904 by proving that there was a direct association between a stimulus and a response reflex action (see chapter 2)
Late 1800s Russia – Lyudvig Martinovitch Puussepp (1875–1942), a neurosurgeon, discovered that there is a slow abduction of the little toe in response to stroking the outer aspect of the foot, which is indicative of upper motor neuron disease. These abnormal reflexes are not present in healthy individuals
1892 France – Dr Joseph François Felix Babinski (1857–1932), a neurologist, ascertained the plantar reflex (see chapter 2, page 46)
1893 England – Sir Henry Head (1861–1940), a neurologist, published research proving a direct relationship between pressure applied to the skin and its effect on internal organs. This was later clarified to be the effects of dermatomes (see chapter 2, page 43)
1895 United States – Dr William Fitzgerald (1872–1942) qualified at the University of Vermont, and was the originator of the theory of zone therapy (died 21 October 1942 in Stamford, Connecticut)
1897 Egypt – Tomb of Ankhmahor at Saqqara discovered by V Loret depicting treatment of feet, hands and legs
1902 Vienna – Fitzgerald studied and taught in Vienna
1906 England – Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1859–1952), an Oxford physiologist, proved that the whole nervous system responded to stimuli from proprioceptors, specialized sensory nerve endings that monitored internal changes in the body. He published his findings in The Integrative Action of the Nervous System
1907 Russia – Bekhterev formed the Psychoneurological Institute, and later became the Director of the State Reflexological Institute for the study of the brain in Leningrad
1913–20 Washington – Fitzgerald went to Washington to teach and lecture to Shelby-Riley students
1915 United States – Edwin Bowers article published ‘To stop that toothache squeeze your toe’
1917 United States – Edwin Bowers MD and William Fitzgerald MD published Zone Therapy. Many other books were published during this period
1919 United States – Dr Joe Shelby-Riley published first of 12 books about zone therapy, the last being published in 1942
1928 Russia – Bekhterev had his work translated into English
1938 United States – Eunice Ingham (24 February 1889–10 December 1974) published Stories the Feet Can Tell
1945 United States – Eunice Ingham published Stories the Feet Have Told
1949 United States – Dr Roy S Ashton published The Fundamental System Bad Feet-Bad Spine showing the connection between foot abnormalities and the spine
1955 United States – Harry Bond Bressler published his book Zone Therapy confirming all of Dr William Fitzgerald’s work
1966 England – Doreen Bayly returned from America after training with Eunice Ingham and introduced reflexology to Britain; she published her first foot chart in black and white in 1966 entitled ‘The Eunice Ingham method chart produced by Doreen Bayly’
1974 Germany – Hanne Marquardt studied with Ingham in 1970; then she published Reflex Zone Therapy of the Feet
1978 England – Reflexology Today. The Stimulation of The Body’s Healing Forces Through Foot Massage was published by Doreen Bayly. Her earlier chart was reproduced in colour in 1970
1978 Taiwan – Father Joseph Eugster began his dedicated work, teaching reflexology
1980s England – Complementary medicine and reflexology specifically became a growth area; by this time over 80 books had now been written, and many articles, some with conflicting points but many stating a similar theme. Societies and associations were formed from 1983 onwards around the world. Schools were set up with many offering short training programmes leading to a certificate to practise
1990s England – Directories were set up but are not conclusive, as many people do not choose to advertise this way. The Institute for Complementary Medicine formed a British Register of Complementary Practitioners (BRCP). The British Council of Complementary Medicine is a registered charity, which was formed to establish national standards in all developing areas of complementary medicine. It works in tandem with the BRCP. The British Complementary Medicine Association (BCMA) was formed in 1992 to assist therapists in the setting of standards of practice and to encourage them to join together in self-regulatory bodies. The BCMA is a leading member of the Independent Care Organisations (ICO) – the body charged with setting standards in private health care.
Research programmes are being initiated. The years ahead look promising.
2 A holistic approach to medicine
The concept of holistic medicine
Holistic medicine is an approach to health care in general; it is based upon the idea that health is the result of harmony between the body, mind and spirit and any extreme stress of any kind, which includes physical, psychological, social and environmental pressure, is inimical to good health.
Natural healing takes place every day. When you cut yourself, the body’s innate power draws and knits together tissue and heals the wound. If we fracture a bone, many parts of the body perform different tasks for healing to occur; a team effort is needed, as no single body part works alone. The body is like a machine with many component parts that perform daily chores in maintaining blood circulation, and ensuring the correct level of fluids and enzymes to keep it in good running order. These functions would not be able to take place without energy. Food is the fuel that provides the energy the body needs for its cells to perform their intricate tasks. Every part of the body is involved with a complex nerve network, with the brain as the control centre, monitoring and co-ordinating every function. All the component parts need to be in balance.
Reflexology provides the means whereby the body can be synchronized to balance the timing of its engine. Reflexology is a fascinating study of the links between reflex points of the feet and hands and longitudinal (vertical) pathways or zones. As we work on the feet, we thus form a picture of the entire body. In this way the feet or hands are considered a microcosm of the body, with all organs, glands, and so on laid out in the same arrangement (for details of the reflex areas, see plates 1–4).
As mentioned above, all processes that take place in the cells of the body need energy. The energy transfer that is central to reflexology and other healing systems such as shiatsu, acupuncture and acupressure allows the body’s integrated systems to achieve homeostasis. We often hear in traditional medical systems terms such as ‘Chi’, frequently translated as ‘life energy’ or ‘life force’, or ‘Prana’, meaning breath of life. Energy is indeed constantly circulating through the body and is the very foundation of life. At a cellular level, we need energy to survive, we draw energy from the food we eat and this powers every cell within the body, which in turn needs its own energy to function. It is this much deeper level of biotic energy, the innate energy at cellular level, which maintains the metabolic processes that we work on.
At the neurological level, every machine needs a control system, and the complex brain is the control and computer system of the body. The brain, which is the source of conscious awareness of each and every thought process, is also a motor centre initiating and co-ordinating the voluntary movements of the body, and interpreting all the fast incoming information received from the sense organs. It monitors and discharges the necessary signals to muscles, glands or other parts of the nervous system to respond appropriately. It is a vast network, and is the body’s greatest user of energy, to power the many chemical and neurological processes associated with it.
The physical body and its component parts are made up from billions and billions of cells, and even though there are many types, shapes and sizes, the one thing they all have in common is a requirement for energy. According to the holistic concept, for instance as found in TCM theory, if this internal energy is obstructed, deficient or in excess in any way the cells function less effectively. In reflexology, during a treatment session the therapist will utilize those pathways of energy that already exist in the human body and they return the imbalanced or deficient energy flow safely back into harmony. Reflexology treatment is given to look after and nurture the body, and is often likened to the constant maintenance and preservation that a machine needs to keep it in good running order. We know for any effective control of any manmade apparatus it needs power or energy and maintenance. The first often can only be achieved by giving it a motor or engine that drives it, and this in turn must be maintained. The engine may be driven or powered by electricity or another substance.
Two opposing systems are also usually needed to make it work, for instance in a car engine the brake and the accelerator. This again is paralleled in many of the systems within the body. Locomotion is the result of the co-ordinated action of muscles on the limbs. The muscles of the body work in antagonizing pairs. The same is true of hormones which interact in a biofeedback system that enables them to regulate the body towards an almost constant state. For example, glucagon raises the level of blood glucose, while insulin has an opposing effect and lowers the glucose levels. High levels of oestrogen are secreted by the ovaries to stimulate ovulation but (in the absence of egg fertilization) are counterbalanced during the monthly menstrual cycle by progesterone, which in turn is only secreted under the control of other hormones from the pituitary. These gonadotrophin hormones thus work in unison. From this we see how the body must be in balance. Hormones are responsible for certain changes in the body, and work together with the nervous system to monitor and control blood pressure levels. Hormone responses are not so quick as those of the nervous system, and they function more on a long-term basis. By these physiological processes all the internal systems of the body (for example blood pressure, body temperature, the acid-base balance) are maintained at equilibrium despite variations in the external conditions. If there is a homeostatic imbalance in the various systems then disease will eventually occur.
Since all the systems of the body interrelate, only one area needs to be slightly out of balance to lead to disorders in other areas. These problems can often be observed to travel up and down a zone and even affect other parts of the body. Ill-health often falls into what is known as the ‘vague symptom’ category: a general malaise is often felt, every part of the body aches with general stress in neck and shoulders, the person may be irritable, not sleeping properly, picking at or eating too much food, making them feel ill or tense. Such a person may be unsure whether to go to their doctor or not, in case they are labelled neurotic, and the symptoms often continue for a long period of time. It is only when a problem becomes chronic do they begin to be more concerned.
Many complementary therapies, among them reflexology, are natural, non-invasive, and drugless paths to self-help, helping to restore a person to a more tranquil temperament, improve their mental condition and enable the person to cope better with life’s demands. Reflexology treatment encourages a generally healthier body by facilitating the proper functioning of the circulatory system, so enabling the supply of nutrients and oxygen to reach all cells of the body.
Imbalance of our internal environment is often caused by stress (see chapter 10 for a detailed discussion of this). The excitatory process of a stress stimulus often changes this internal environment, causing high blood pressure, pain in many parts of the body because the muscles become tense, depression, brooding or morbid thoughts, a change in our circadian (or daily) rhythms and other regular biological body rhythms (e.g. daily body temperature variations, sleeping and waking patterns, the female menstrual cycle). The hypothalamus and the medulla oblongata (see figure 2.23) contain the main brain centres controlling such homeostatic functions. While in a healthy body slight changes can be coped with, major changes such as going on holiday abroad (time change) can cause a very real problem. Also shift workers, for instance nurses or people who work nights, often find this interference with regular rhythms of the body leads to the so-called psychosomatic disorders (i.e. mental and physical disorders such as asthma, eczema, peptic ulcer, irritable bowel syndrome, headaches, back stresses). All these are caused by the body’s automatic responses to stress, mediated by the autonomic nervous system.
Theories and philosophies
What is energy?
The general definition of energy is ‘power’, ‘vigour’, ‘vitality’ or ‘force’; in physics the definition of energy is the work that a physical system is capable of doing. Energy cannot be destroyed but it can change form. The body’s processes utilize electrical and chemical forms of energy. Kirlian photography is a special form of high-voltage photographic process which apparently records the energy field around the body on light-sensitive paper. This process has demonstrated changes in the energy field before and after a reflexology treatment. The exact nature of this energy field is a matter of debate. Eastern and Western systems have tended to have different views on this.
Reflexology is a method of contacting the electrical centres in the body. It aims to create a smooth flow of ‘vibratory energy’ throughout the body. By contacting various points on the feet this energy is thought to travel to the spine and then out to the organs, glands or cells, following set paths, although these are thought not to correspond to the Chinese meridians. However, the nature of the energy is thought to be the same.
Polarity therapy is another therapy based on the Yin and Yang principles (see chapter 1). Its theory is that life energy flows between the two poles, one positive flowing to a negative pole and vice versa. This concept was applied by Doctor Randolph Stone to the general condition of the human body and mind. He likened the movement of energy in the human body as energetic currents; he referred to this as the ‘wireless anatomy of man’. The ancient Chinese looked at the living body as being one of the expressions of tension between two poles, heaven and earth. Heaven is found above the head, the Creative, awakening our higher nature, our source of ideas. Earth lies beneath the feet, the Receptive. The head and feet, and the hands, can be viewed as mediators channelling Qi energy to various organs or glands that need revitalizing.
The body field can be demonstrated by the following exercise. With your palms facing, rub your hands together quite gently, then move your hands very slowly a few inches apart, you should feel a sensation of warmth, or flow, or a magnetic type of pulling sensation in the fingers between the two hands.
Reflexology aims to stabilize elements lacking or unbalanced in a person’s basic energy; the touch of the practitioner’s hand on a person’s feet can also be thought to create a flow of energy between them. This particular technique of touch has a great ability to calm down and completely relax a person.
In reflexology the distribution of energy in the whole body is considered to correspond to the distribution of energy in the hands and feet. So by holding a person’s hand or foot you become very aware of their internal structure: the limbs, bones, joints, muscles, arteries, nerves, skin and nails. You also begin to feel you can ‘read’ the energy structure within.
Life energy can mean many different things to people working in different traditions. Perhaps we should not try to explain it, but be satisfied with being aware of its existence. We should also keep in mind that we not only touch tissue, muscle and bone but we also ‘touch’ the very life force of the body.
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