Kitabı oku: «Spanish America, Vol. II (of 2)», sayfa 6
In the forests and in the plains of the coast, are found the cabbage palm, the cocoa nut, the cacao nut, the cotton shrub, the pine apple, canna, amomum, turmeric, plantain, sugar cane, &c., on the sides of the Andes, and in its great plains, are the precious cinchona, coffee tree, the cardana alliodora, a large tree, whose leaves and wood emit an odour resembling garlic. Twenty-four species of pepper, five or six of capsicum, and several of potato, tobacco and jalap exist in Peru, and the green and hot houses of Europe owe most of their beautiful flowers and plants to this country.
The llama, the guanuco, the vicuna, and the alpaca, or the different species of American camel, find their native climate in the cold districts of Peru; the jaguar, the cougar or puma, and several other wild animals, inhabit the thick forests; while the elk, the ant-bear, deer, monkeys, the great black bear of the Andes, and armadillos, &c., are very numerous. The woods abound in beautiful birds, the rivers in fish and alligators, and numerous tribes of reptiles infest the warm districts of the coast, in which venomous insects are also common.
The mountains of Peru do not yield in height to those of Quito, the great chain of the Andes dividing itself into several parallel branches, forming as in Quito, long and narrow valleys, near its summits; it is very precipitous towards the east, and seems to form a natural barrier between the kingdoms of La Plata and Peru. It here gives birth to the Maranon, the Guallaga, the Tunguragua, and a variety of smaller rivers, which either lose themselves in these or in the Pacific Ocean.
HISTORY, DISCOVERY, &C
The history of Peru in the remote ages is not so clearly ascertained as that of Mexico; traditions were not handed down to posterity as in that country by symbolical paintings, but were remembered only by means of the quippus, a knotted string of different colours, or by the priests who were brought up from their youth in temples, where the history of the nation was one of the objects of the care of their elders in their instruction.
Although it is doubtful which nation had advanced to the greatest state of civilization, it is certain that the Mexicans had the most correct chronological notions; and accordingly, the æras of their early history are the most to be depended on. From what country the ancient Peruvians migrated is not known; they were however of a character widely different from the Mexicans, and have been conjectured by some authors to have come from the south-east.
They remained for a length of time without any decided form of government, until they were subdued by a tribe who were said to have come from an island in a great lake to the south of Peru. These people were warlike and totally different in their manners from the Peruvians, who were merely tribes of wandering inoffensive savages. According to some authors Manco Capac, and Mama Oello his wife were the conquerors of Peru, appearing on the banks of lake Chucuito, clothed in flowing garments, and whiter than the natives whom they came amongst; they gave themselves out as children of the sun, sent by that divinity to reclaim and instruct mankind. Awed by the presence of these people, the rude savages followed them till they settled at Cuzco, where they founded a town, afterwards the capital of Peru. Persuading the tribes who wandered over the country to collect around them, Manco Capac, instructed the men in agricultural and other useful arts, while Mama Oello taught the females to weave and spin. After securing the objects of primary importance, those of providing food, raiment and habitations for his followers, Manco Capac turned his attention towards framing laws for their government, in order to perpetuate the good work he had begun. He constituted himself their sovereign and high priest, enacted a law that no one but his descendants were to fill this post, that they were to be held sacred, and looked upon as inferior only to the planet from whom they sprung.
At first his territories embraced only a few leagues in extent round the capital, but these were rapidly enlarged from the mild and beneficent effects of his patriarchal government.
He was now styled by his subjects Capac, or rich in virtue; he founded the temple of the sun at Cuzco, which was to be served only by virgins of royal descent. This monarch lived among his people for a number of years and then suddenly disappeared. His successors increased the boundaries of their territories by the force of their arms, and by the greater force of persuasion, backed by the mildest exercise of their royal functions.
These monarchs were styled Incas, and were distinguished by a peculiar dress and ornaments, which none of their subjects dared to assume; they were adored by the Peruvians, who looked upon them as the sons and vicegerents of the divinity they worshipped. This unbounded power of the Incas was unaccompanied by any ill effects, as their attention was uniformly exerted for the good of their subjects, in extending the benefits of civilization, and knowledge of the arts introduced by their founder.
It seems highly probable that such a person as Manco Capac existed, and that he introduced the measures we have related, but it is also most probable that he was accompanied by followers who carried his dictates into effect among the rude Peruvians, and therefore the supposition that these people were conquered by a superior and warlike tribe from the south, is by no means improbable, as at the present day, there exist several tribes in the southern forests, who are more civilized than the modern Peruvians, and who have successfully resisted the invasion of the Spaniards. The successor of Manco Capac, who died in the latter end of the twelfth or beginning of the thirteenth century, was his son Sinchi Roca, or the brave, who extended his dominions sixty miles south of Cuzco. The third Inca was Lloque Yupanqui, who further extended the territories of Cuzco and reduced several tribes; the fourth was Maita Capac, who also added to the empire, and erected several splendid edifices; the fifth, Capac Yupanqui, was another conqueror; the sixth, Inca Roca, subdued many small districts; the seventh was named Yahuar Huacac; the eighth, Inca Ripac, and who had an army of 30,000 men; he conquered many provinces, and obliged the chief of Tucuman to pay him homage; the ninth was Inca Urca, who was deposed after he had reigned eleven days; he was succeeded by Pachacutec, who subdued Jauja, Tarma, and other provinces; the eleventh was Yupanqui, who carried his conquests to the river Maule, in Chili, and over the Mojos far to the east of the Andes; the twelfth, Tupac Yupanqui, conquered several districts in Quito; and the thirteenth, Huayna Capac, subdued the kingdom of Lican or Quito, and established himself in the capital. His history has been related in the historical description of that province. On his death-bed he divided Quito and Peru between his sons; but Inti Cusi Hualpa, or Huascar, was declared Inca; he fought a bloody battle with his brother Atahualpa, and was taken prisoner, on which Atahualpa or Atabalipa, invested himself with the regal fillet, and was proclaimed fifteenth Inca of the Peruvians. On his being killed by Pizarro, Manco Capac was crowned by permission of that general, but revolted from the allegiance he had vowed to Spain, and retiring to the mountains, is supposed to have died about 1553. The seventeenth and last of the Incas, was Sayri Tupac, who resigned his sovereignty to Philip the Eleventh of Spain, and died a christian, leaving only one daughter, who married Onez de Loyola, a Spanish knight, from whom descend the Marquesses of Oropesa and Alcanises. Manco Capac, the Second, left several children, one of whom, Tupac Amaru, was the oldest, and was beheaded by the Spaniards, on pretence of his having assumed the imperial fillet.
The discovery of Peru by the Europeans takes its date from the latter end of the reign of Huana Capac in 1524, when three inhabitants of the city of Panama entered into an association for the purpose of exploring the continent south of the isthmus of Darien. Don Francisco Pizarro of Truxillo, Don Diego Almagro of Malagon, and a priest named Hernando de Luque, were at that time among the richest people of Panama, and proposed to themselves the employment of their fortunes in one common stock, to discover and conquer new countries on the south, after the model of Cortez in Mexico, with whom Pizarro had served, and to whom he was related. Having obtained permission from Pedro Arias de Avila, the governor of Terra Firma, Pizarro fitted out a vessel, in which he embarked in the port of Panama with 114 men.
About fifty leagues from the harbour, he discovered a small barren district, named Peru, and from this now unknown spot, the celebrated country we are describing received its name. Beyond Peru, he explored another district, which he called El Pueblo Quemado. The Indians of that country were so resolute, that Pizarro was obliged to return to the coast of Panama. In the mean time Almagro fitted out another vessel and sailed in search of Pizarro, as far as the Rio San Juan, a hundred leagues south of Panama, but not meeting with him, he returned and landed on the coast of Pueblo Quemado, where finding certain indications that he had been there, Almagro landed his men, who were immediately attacked by the natives, and forced to retire to their ship and put to sea; in this action Almagro lost an eye. Following the shore to the north, he found Pizarro at Chinchama, near the Isla del Rey, in the gulf of Panama; they had now by their junction an armed force of 200 men, and again resumed their expedition, and sailed to the south, with their two vessels attended by three large canoes. They suffered very much in their attempts to land on the coast from the barren nature of the country, and from contrary winds and currents, as well as from the native tribes.
Having lost several men from famine and the constant attacks of the Indians, Almagro was dispatched to Panama for recruits and provisions. He soon rejoined Pizarro with twenty-four men and good supplies; they therefore advanced to the coast of Tacames, beyond the river San Juan, which had hitherto been the extent of their voyages; here they found a better peopled country and plenty of provision; and the natives, who were still hostile, were observed to wear ornaments of gold. Almagro was therefore detached a second time to Panama to procure more men, and Pizarro remained at the Isla Gallo, near the shore of Barbacoas, to await his return; in which island his men suffered great hardships from the want of food. On the arrival of Almagro at Panama, he found the governor, Pedro de los Rios, adverse to the plan, and he was not allowed to raise any recruits, while an order was sent to Gallo, for those to return who wished not to engage in such a dangerous enterprise. In consequence of this measure, the party of Pizarro was reduced to twelve men, who were the whole that chose to abide the issue of the voyage. They retired with their leader to a small uninhabited isle, named Gorgona, at a greater distance from the coast, and seventy miles nearer Panama. This isle abounding with rivulets, the little band lived more comfortably than they had done at Gallo, and waited with great anxiety for a supply of provisions from Panama, which at last arrived in a small vessel.
With this assistance, Pizarro and his faithful twelve, embarked on board the vessel, and putting themselves under the guidance of the pilot, Bartolomeo Bruye of Moguer, they reached with great labour, (from the adverse currents,) the coast of a district named Mostripe, on which they landed and advanced a short way up the river Amatape, which flows into the gulf of Payta, where they procured some Peruvian camels or sheep, and took some of the natives to answer as interpreters in their future progress.
Leaving this place, Pizarro sailed for the port of Tumbez on the south side of the bay of Guayaquil, where he had learnt that a rich monarch who existed in the interior had a fine palace. At Tumbez, three of his followers left him, and were afterwards slain by the Indians. Procuring the information he wanted, Pizarro returned to Panama, having spent three years in these discoveries, and from being the richest was now reduced to be the poorest of the colonists of Tierra Firma. In concert with Almagro, in the latter end of 1527, Pizarro raised some money, and was sent to Spain to beseech the king to forward the further discovery of the country, and to name a governor, which office he solicited for himself. His demands were complied with, and he returned to Panama, accompanied by his brothers Ferdinand, Juan and Gonzalo.
Besides these, he brought with him Francisco Martin de Alcantara, his uncle, and as many men as he could procure; he was assisted in raising these men, by a supply of money from Cortez.
On his arrival in Panama, in 1530, a violent dispute broke out between Almagro and himself, the former complaining that he had unjustly procured the title of governor of Peru. Pizarro was obliged to soothe him, by assuring him that he would renounce all pretensions to that office, if Almagro could procure the consent of the Spanish monarch. Almagro being appeased by this concession, exerted himself at first, to the utmost, in forwarding the expedition, but owing to the jealousy he still entertained of the Pizarros, he at last endeavoured to thwart their efforts, and Pizarro sailed without him, with three small vessels, carrying 180 soldiers, thirty-six of whom were horsemen in February 1531; contrary winds obliged the general, after a voyage of thirteen days, to land 100 leagues more to the north than he intended, and the place of disembarkation was named the Bay of St. Mateo, from whence the troops had to undergo a long and painful march, crossing rivers and other obstacles; they at last reached Coaque, a place in Tacames on the sea-side, where they procured fresh provision. After subduing the natives of this town, Pizarro sent one of the ships which had sailed along the coast, to Panama, and the other to Nicaragua, with about 24,000 or 25,000 ducats worth of gold, which he had seized. This was destined for Almagro and others, in order to procure a farther reinforcement, with which he was gradually supplied, the first who joined him being Benalcazar, from Nicaragua. He then continued his march along the coast, and met with scarcely any resistance, until he attacked the Isle of Puna, in the bay of Guayaquil. Six months expired before he could reduce this island to subjection, and from hence he went to Tumbez, where, on account of the disease which raged among his men, he remained three months longer.
From Tumbez, he advanced in May 1532, to the river Piura, and close to its mouth founded the first Spanish colony in Peru, to which he gave the name of San Miguel, having subdued all the curacas or chiefs in the vicinity. While engaged in founding this city, the general received a message from Huascar, the reigning Inca, informing him of the revolt of Atahualpa, and requesting his assistance in establishing the empire in the hands of its lawful sovereign. Placing a garrison in San Miguel, Pizarro determined to penetrate into the interior, under the guidance of the Inca's messengers; his disposable force consisting at this time, of sixty-two horsemen and 102 foot soldiers, twenty of whom were armed with cross-bows, and three only carrying matchlocks, with two small field-pieces. The Peruvian ambassador directed his march towards the province of Caxamarca, in which Atahualpa then was. On his route he received messengers from the usurper with costly presents, requesting also his assistance.
Pizarro informed these people, that his views were entirely pacific, and that he meant merely to assist in reconciling the difference between the brothers. On his arrival, after a distressing march at Caxamarca, he was shown a house, in which himself and troops were to repose. This building, which was very extensive, was formed into a square, in which stood a temple and a palace, and the whole was surrounded with a strong rampart.
Atahualpa, immediately after the Spaniards had taken possession of their quarters, paid their general a visit, accompanied with an immense train of courtiers and warriors.
Father Vicente Valverde, the chaplain to the army, and bishop of Peru, advanced to meet the usurping Inca, holding in one hand his breviary, and a crucifix in the other, and commenced a long harangue, in which he set forth the necessity of his immediately embracing the Christian religion, related its forms, and told him that the king of Spain, had received a grant from the pope of all the regions in the New World, ending with desiring him to be baptized, to acknowledge the supremacy of the pope, and the authority of the king of Castile, promising in their names, that the general would favour his claims to the empire of Peru, if he submitted, but denouncing war and vengeance if he refused.
The reply of Atahualpa, to such parts of this speech as he could be made to comprehend, was temperate; he said, "he was lord of the territories he had succeeded to by the laws of his country, that he could not conceive how a foreign priest could pretend to dispose of his dominions; he declared he had no intention to renounce the religion of his fathers, and he wished to know where the Spaniards had learnt all the wonderful things which Valverde had been relating;" the bishop answered, "in the book he held," on which Atahualpa requested it from him, and turning over a few leaves, and placing it to his ear, threw it on the ground, saying, "it is silent, it tells me nothing." Valverde turning to the Spanish troops, immediately exclaimed, "To arms! to arms! Christians! the Word of God is insulted, avenge this profanation on these impious dogs." Pizarro being of opinion that the numbers of the Peruvians would overpower him if he waited their attack, gave the signal of assault, advancing at the head of his band to the charge, he pushed directly for the litter in which Atahualpa was borne, the people who carried it were repeatedly slain, and as repeatedly replaced by others, anxious for the honour of rescuing their sovereign. Pizarro at last cut his way through the crowd to the unfortunate prince, and seizing him by the long hair of his head, he dragged him from his seat. In doing this, several soldiers cutting down the people who supported the golden litter, and a sword glancing off, wounded Pizarro in the hand, but regardless of the pain, he held fast his rich prize in spite of the multitude of Peruvians who surrounded him.
As soon as the monarch was secured beyond redemption, universal panic seized his army, and they fled in every direction, night alone putting a period to their pursuit, by the cavalry; 4000 Indians fell in this memorable battle, which decided the fate of a mighty empire; not a single Spaniard was killed, and the plunder of the Indian camp was immense. This action took place on the 10th of November 1532.
The captive Inca finding he had no chance of escape, offered a ransom, which was to be so great a quantity of gold, that it would fill the apartment in which he was confined, as high as he could reach. This chamber was twenty-two feet in length, and sixteen in breadth, and a line was drawn around the walls, to indicate the height to which the treasure was to rise; and Pizarro, acceding to this proposal, the Inca immediately dispatched emissaries to Cuzco, to procure the ransom; with these messengers two Spanish officers were sent, to see that the gold in the treasury of Cuzco was sufficient to answer the demand, as some doubts had been shown by the Europeans on that subject. On their route, they met the captive Inca Huascar, escorted by a party of Atahualpa's troops; conferring with Huascar, they discovered that he possessed treasures to a much greater amount; but as they were concealed, he alone knew where they were; he informed the officers, that if Pizarro would reinstate him in his dignity, he would give three times as much gold as his brother, and promised to swear allegiance to the Spanish king.
Soto and Barco, the two officers, told him it was out of their power to return to Caxamarca, as they were ordered to go to Cuzco, but that they would faithfully relate all that had passed to the general, when they had executed their mission; this they did, but in the interval, the whole conference had been detailed to Atahualpa, who foreseeing, that if Pizarro once got possession of the enormous treasures of Huascar, he should become of no importance, ordered his emissaries to kill his unfortunate brother; and as his will was a law, the order was speedily carried into execution.
Whilst these events were passing, Almagro arrived from Panama, with a large reinforcement, to the great joy of the Spaniards; the treasure from Cuzco also arrived, and consisted of golden utensils and ornaments, used in the temples of the Sun; these, excepting a few which were reserved as curiosities, were melted down; a fifth was set aside for the king; 100,000 dollars were distributed to the followers of Almagro; and the remainder, amounting to 1,528,500 dollars, an enormous sum in those times, was divided among Pizarro and his troops, each horseman receiving 8000 dollars, and each foot-soldier 4000.
After this ransom was paid, instead of releasing his prisoner, Pizarro, who was alarmed on one hand by the exaction of an equal share of the ransom by the troops under Almagro, and on the other by the accounts of large armies forming in the interior determined to kill Atahualpa, which fate that monarch hastened, by professing his contempt of the general, on account of his want of learning. The Inca seeing and admiring the method which the Europeans had of communicating their ideas by writing, was for a long time unable to conceal his astonishment and doubts, whether it was not managed by evil spirits; accordingly he directed a soldier to write the name of God on his thumb nail, and showed it to every Spaniard he saw, in order to observe whether they all gave a similar account of its meaning.
At length he showed it to Pizarro, who blushing, acknowledged that he was ignorant of the art of writing, which was an acquirement that most of his nation possessed. From that time the Inca, who now clearly saw the whole mystery, looked upon the general, as a person of low birth, less instructed than the meanest of his soldiers, and not having the address to conceal his sentiments, forfeited any good opinion which Pizarro might have had for him. A mock trial was instituted, and the Inca formally arraigned, before the self-constituted tribunal, which consisted of Pizarro, Almagro, and two assistants; he was charged by Philipillo, an Indian, who had been to Spain with Pizarro, with attempting to seize the empire of Peru from his natural sovereign; with putting him to death; with idolatry; permission and encouragement of human sacrifices; with having many wives; with waste and embezzlement of the royal treasure, and with inciting his subjects to take up arms against the Spaniards.
Witnesses were examined, to whom Philipillo served as an interpreter, and gave their evidence as he pleased. On these charges the Inca was condemned to suffer death, by being burnt alive. Valverde signed the warrant, and attended the monarch to the stake, which was immediately prepared. Actuated by the fear of a cruel death, and tormented by the infamous bishop, Atahualpa consented to be baptized, in hopes of obtaining a release from so dreadful a punishment. Valverde crossed and confessed his royal victim, baptized him, and then led him to be strangled!
On the death of Atahualpa, his son was invested with the royal insignia by Pizarro, who hoped to retain the Indians in subjection, by the command he held over their sovereign.
Quizquiz, a Peruvian general, had made head in a province named Xauxa, so that it was necessary for Pizarro to march against him; this was accordingly done; and Hernando de Soto, moving forward with a strong advanced guard, Quizquiz retreated, being unable to withstand Soto; but that leader followed him, and obliged the Peruvians to retreat on Quito.
So great was the fame of Pizarro's conquests at this time, that numerous bodies of troop joined him from Tierra Firma, Guatimala, &c., and he was now enabled to take the field with 500 men, besides leaving sufficient garrisons in the conquered towns. He accordingly hastened his march on Cuzco, the capital, in the route to which he met Paulu Inca, a brother of Atahualpa, who had been solemnly invested with the regal fillet by the Peruvians. He told the Spanish general that he had a large army at Cuzco, who were ready to submit to his orders. On the arrival of the Spaniards they were however attacked very vigorously by the Peruvians, and a battle ensued which lasted till night.
The next day the general entered the metropolis without opposition, where he found an immense booty; his thoughts were now turned on colonizing the country, and placing such a force in Cuzco as should insure a permanent settlement there; this he effected with much difficulty, as many of his followers were determined to return to Spain in order to enjoy in their native country the fruits of their hard-earned wealth.
San Miguel the first town built by the Spaniards being poorly garrisoned, Pizarro now sent Benalcazar with ten horsemen to reinforce the place. This officer receiving complaints from the neighbouring Indians of the exactions and vindictive proceedings of the Peruvians at Quito, took with him a number of soldiers who had then arrived from Panama and Nicaragua to subdue that country; his success was complete. Quito and Cuzco the two capitals being now reduced Fernando Pizarro was dispatched by his brother to Spain, to lay an account of the proceedings of the Spanish Army before the king, carrying with him an immensely valuable present in gold and silver. He was favourably received, Pizarro was confirmed in his government and a further addition of seventy leagues to the south made to his territories; on Almagro was conferred the government of the countries 200 leagues south of the limits prescribed to Pizarro, who was created Marquess of Atavillos.
While the negotiations were going on, Alvarado the governor of Guatimala had landed on the Peruvian coast with a large force, and gone into the interior with the intention of dispossessing Almagro of his command, and Pizarro of the possession of Cuzco, but marching against the army of the former who was employed in reducing the provinces between Quito and Peru, his men refused to fight their brethren, and the leaders after much parleying became reconciled; Alvarado promising to deliver over his troops to the two generals for a stipulated sum, which was honourably paid him by Pizarro. These troubles being at an end, Pizarro founded the city of Lima, on the 18th of January, 1533, and transferred the colonists he had placed in Xauxa thither.
While he was thus employed Almagro having heard of the king's grant, determined to take possession of Cuzco, which he considered within his limit; in this attempt he was defeated by the municipal body of that place, and Pizarro arriving in good time, put a stop to his further proceedings. It was then agreed that Almagro should have 500 men, and proceed southward, conquering such countries as he deemed expedient, in which he was to be assisted by every means in Pizarro's power; this was the commencement of the conquest of Chili.
After the departure of Almagro on this scheme, Pizarro resumed his task of giving a regular form to his government, by making the necessary distributions of land to the colonists who were continually arriving, by instituting courts of justice, and by founding towns, &c. Manco Capac the reigning Inca revolted at this period, and entered, with Philipillo and others, into a conspiracy to exterminate the armies of Pizarro and Almagro; he obtained possession of Cuzco, which was not taken from him until after eight days hard fighting, and with the loss of Juan Pizarro, who was killed by a stone.
The brothers of Pizarro, who was at Lima, had much difficulty to maintain possession of the capital; all communication between them and the governor being cut off, and the place was vigorously besieged by Manco Capac and his brothers Paullu and Villaoma, for eight months, during which time the Spaniards lost many men. Almagro hearing of these disasters, thought this a convenient time to assert his old pretensions to the government of Cuzco, and accordingly marched from the frontiers of Chili to that place in 1537. He was met by the Inca, who under pretence of making overtures to him, drew him into a snare, from which he narrowly escaped, with the loss of several of his men.
The brothers of Pizarro finding they had now a new enemy to withstand, prepared Cuzco to undergo a formidable siege; but having lost six hundred men during the attacks of the Peruvians, they were surprised by the troops of Almagro who forced them to submit, and declared himself governor of the place, imprisoning Fernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, and quartering Philipillo, who was taken prisoner in the ambush of the Inca.
Manco Capac finding that Almagro was too strong to be easily ejected, retired to the mountains, but his brother Paullu remaining at Cuzco, was raised to the throne of Peru by Almagro. It was some time before all these untoward tidings reached the ears of the new Marquess Pizarro; he first heard of the attack of the city by the Inca, and imagining it to be a trivial affair, detached small parties at different periods to the assistance of his brothers; none of these reached their destination, being always cut off by the Peruvians in the narrow and difficult passes of the mountains. Some few of these people escaping from the massacre, which always took place on their being surprised, returned to Lima, and related the fate of their companions to the Marquess, who recalling all his outposts, nominated Alvarado to the command of the army, and sent him towards Cuzco, with 500 men; but being closely invested at Lima by the Peruvians, under Titu Yupanqui, a brother of Manco Capac, he sent off all his vessels to Panama, fearful that the troops might otherwise desert, and by these ships he implored assistance from the governors of New Spain and the West Indies.
