Kitabı oku: «A History of American Literature», sayfa 2
BOOK LIST
General References
Eggleston, Edward. The Transit of Civilization.
Fiske, John. Beginnings of New England. Chaps. ii, iii.
Hart, A. B. American History told by Contemporaries. Vol. I, pp. 200-272, 313-393.
Richardson, C. F. American Literature. Chaps. i-iii.
Tyler, M. C. History of American Literature. Colonial Period. Vol. I, chaps. i-ix.
Wendell, Barrett. A Literary History of America. Bk. I, chaps. i-iv.
Individual Authors
Captain John Smith. A True Relation (London, 1608); A Map of Virginia, with a Description of the Country (Oxford, 1612); A Description of New England (London, 1616).
Available Editions
Force. Historical Tracts, Vol. II, Nos. 1 and 2. 1883.
Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., Ser.3, Vol. VI.
Collections
Cairns, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 1-18.
Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L. Cyclopedia of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 1-8, 33-43.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 3-17.
Narratives of Early Virginia. L. G. Tyler, editor. 1907.
Sailors Narratives. G. P. Winship, editor. 1905.
William Bradford. History of Plimouth Plantation. First published in Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., Ser. 4, Vol. III.
Available Editions
Charles Deane, editor. 1896.
W. T. Davis, editor. 1912.
Collections
Cairns, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 27-44.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 93-130.
Thomas Morton. New English Canaan, or New Canaan. Amsterdam, 1637.
Available Editions
Force. Historical Tracts, Vol. II, No. 5. 1883. C. F. Adams, editor.
Prince Historical Society Publications. 1888. C. F. Adams, editor.
Collections
Cairns, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 60-72.
Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L. Cyclopedia of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 28-30.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 147-156.
Nathaniel Ward. The Simple Cobler of Aggawam in America. London, 1647.
Available Editions
Force. Historical Tracts, Vol. III, No. 8. 1906.
Ipswich Historical Society of Ipswich, Mass. Publications.
Biography
A Memoir of Nathaniel Ward. J. W. Dean. 1868.
Collections
Cairns, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 112-124.
Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L. Cyclopedia of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 18-20.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 147-156.
Roger Williams. Works. Edited by members of the Narragansett Club. Providence, 1866-1874. 6 vols. Contains likewise J. Cotton’s contributions to the controversy with Williams, together with a bibliography of Williams’s works.
Available Edition
Letters from 1632 to 1675. Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., Ser. 4, Vol. VI.
Biography and Criticism
Carpenter, E. J. Roger Williams; a Study of the Life, etc. Grafton History Series. 1909.
Masson, David. Life of John Milton, Vols. II, III.
Straus, Oscar S. Roger Williams, the Pioneer of Religious Liberty. 1894.
Collections
CAIRNS, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 94-111.
Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L. Cyclopedia of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 32-38.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 246-253.
Literary Treatment of the Period
Drama
Barker, J. N. The Indian Princess; an Operatic Melodrama (1808), in Representative Plays by American Dramatists (edited by M.J. Moses), Vol. I. 1918.
Custis, G. W. P. Pocahontas, or The Settlers of Virginia; a National Drama (1830), in Representative American Plays (edited by A.H. Quinn). 1917.
Essays
Emerson, R. W. Discourse at Concord, 200th Anniversary. Works, Vol. XI.
Lowell, J. R. New England Two Centuries Ago. Works, Vol. II.
Whittier, J. G. A Chapter of History, in Literary Recreations and Miscellanies.
Fiction
Austin, Mrs. J. G. Standish of Standish.
Austin, Mrs. J. G. Betty Alden (sequel).
Austin, Mrs. J. G. David Alden’s Daughter.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Gray Champion and The Maypole of Merry Mount, in Twice-Told Tales.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Young Goodman Brown, in Mosses from an Old Manse.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter.
Johnston, Mary. By Order of the Company.
Johnston, Mary. The Old Dominion.
Motley, J. L. Merry Mount.
Poetry
Poems of American History (edited by B.E. Stevenson), pp. 36-56.
American History by American poets (edited by N.U. Wallington). Vol. I, pp. 39-92.
TOPICS AND PROBLEMS
Read the “New English Canaan,” Bk. III, with a view to deciding how far Morton’s evident prejudice discredited his account of the Puritans; examine it again for its specifically literary qualities.
Read from Bradford’s “History of Plimouth Plantation” for the admirable traits of Puritanism and see, also, if you find grounds for any of Morton’s strictures.
Read the Hawthorne selections in the Book List – Literary Treatment of the Period – and decide how far he may have sympathized with the attitude of Morton in the “New English Canaan.”
Read from “The Simple Cobler of Aggawam” for any evidence of Nathaniel Ward’s residence in America; decide on the degree to which the work is English and the degree to which it is colonial.
Compare the attitude toward Ireland of Nathaniel Ward in this work and of Jonathan Swift in his “Modest Proposal.”
Make comparisons in diction from a corresponding number of pages in “The Simple Cobler” and in Carlyle’s “Sartor Resartus.”
CHAPTER II
THE EARLIEST VERSE
Although it is generally said of the Puritans that they were actually hostile to all the arts, there is abundant proof that they had a liking for verse and a widespread inclination to try their hands at it. They wrote memorial verses of the most intricate and ingenious sorts, sometimes carving them in stone as epitaphs. There is less verse sprinkled through the unregenerate Morton’s “Canaan” than there is in the intolerant Ward’s “Cobler.” The old conservative never wrote more wisely than in this so-called “song”:
They seldom lose the field, but often win,
Who end their Warres, before their Warres begin.
Their Cause is oft the worse, that first begin,
And they may lose the field, the field that win.
In Civil Warres ’twixt Subjects and their King,
There is no conquest got, by conquering.
Warre ill begun, the onely way to mend,
Is t’end the Warre before the Warre do end.
They that will end ill Warres, must have the skill,
To make an end by Rule, and not by Will.
In ending Warres ’tween Subjects and their Kings,
Great things are sav’d by losing little things.
The first whole volume in English printed in the Western Hemisphere (printing of Spanish books in Mexico had long preceded) was “The Bay Psalm Book,” Cambridge, 1640. This represented a conscientious attempt to put into the service of worship a literal translation of the Psalms. The worst passages are all too frequently cited as evidence of the inability of the Puritans to compose or appreciate good verse. And this in spite of the often-quoted and charmingly written prose comment in the editors’ preface:
If therefore the verses are not alwayes so smooth and elegant as some may desire or expect; let them consider that God’s Altar needs not our pollishings: Ex. 20. for wee have respected rather a plaine translation, then to smooth our verses with the sweetness of any paraphrase, and soe have attended Conscience rather than Elegance, fidelity rather then poetry, in translating the hebrew words into english language, and David’s poetry into english meetre; that soe wee may sing in Sion the Lords songs of prayse according to his owne will; untill hee take us from hence and wipe away all our teares, & bid us enter into our masters joye to sing eternall Halleluliahs.
Some historians, moreover, seem to derive satisfaction from quoting passages from Michael Wigglesworth’s (1631-1705) “Day of Doom” as added proof that the Puritans were never able to write verse that was beautiful or even graceful. It must be admitted that this grave and pretentious piece of work was hardly more lovely than the name of the author. Wigglesworth was a devoted Puritan who came to America at the age of seven; graduated from Harvard College; qualified to practice medicine; and then became a preacher, serving, with intermissions of ill health, as pastor in Malden, Massachusetts, from 1657 until his death in 1705. He was a gentle, kindly minister, unfailing in his care for both the bodies and the souls of his parishioners.
He had the “lurking propensity” for verse-writing which was common among the men of his time, but instead of venting it merely in the composing of acrostics, anagrams, and epitaphs, he dedicated it to the Lord in the writing of a sort of rimed sermon on the subject of the Day of Judgment. The full title reads, “The Day of Doom or, a Description Of the Great and Last Judgment with a short discourse about Eternity. Eccles. 12. 14. For God shall bring every work into judgment with every secret thing, whether it be good, or whether it be evil.” It was printed, probably in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1662. The poem is composed of two hundred and twenty-four eight-line stanzas. After an invocation and the announcement of the day of doom, the dead come from their graves before the throne of Christ. There the “sheep” who have been chosen for salvation are placed on the right, and the wicked “goats” come in groups to hear the judge’s verdict. These include hypocrites, civil, honest men, those who died in youth before they were converted, those who were misled by the example of the good, those who did not understand the Bible, those who feared martyrdom more than hell-torment, those who thought salvation was hopeless, and, finally, those who died as babes. All are sternly answered from the throne, and all are swept off to a common eternal doom except the infants, for whom is reserved “the easiest room in hell.”
Two facts should be remembered in criticizing “The Day of Doom” as poetry. The first is that Wigglesworth wrote it consciously as a teacher and preacher and not as a poet. In his introduction he said:
Reader, I am a fool
And have adventurèd
To play the fool this once for Christ,
The more his fame to spread.
If this my foolishness
Help thee to be more wise,
I have attainèd what I seek,
And what I only prize.
The second point is that in writing a rimed sermon for Christian worshipers he had a model supplied him in the popular “Bay Psalm Book,” which had appeared some twenty years before and which was familiar to all the people who were likely to be his readers. The translators of the 121st Psalm wrote, for example:
1 I to the hills lift up mine eyes,
from whence shall come mine aid
2 Mine help doth from Jehovah come,
which heav’n and earth hath made.
And Wigglesworth took up the strain with
No heart so bold, but now grows cold,
and almost dead with fear;
No eye so dry but now can cry,
and pour out many a tear.
To any modern reader the use of this light-footed meter for so grave a subject seems utterly ill-considered, and the whole idea of the day of doom as he presented it seems so unnatural as to be amusing. But Wigglesworth was trying to write a rimed summary of what everybody thought, in a meter with which everybody was familiar, and he was unqualifiedly successful. A final verdict on Michael Wigglesworth is often superciliously pronounced on the basis of this one poem, or, if any further attention is conceded him, the worst of his remaining output is produced for evidence that he and all Puritan preachers were clumsy and prosaic verse-writers.
Yet in the never-quoted lines immediately following “The Day of Doom” – a poem without a title, on the vanity of human wishes – Michael Wigglesworth gave proofs of human kindliness and of poetic power. In these earnest lines Wigglesworth showed a mastery of fluent verse, a control of poetic imagery, and a gentle yearning for the souls’ welfare of his parishioners which is the utterance of the pastor rather than of the theologian. For a moment God ceases to be angry, Christ stands pleading without the gate, and the good pastor utters a poem upon the neglected theme “The Kingdom of Heaven is within you”:
Fear your great Maker with a child-like awe,
Believe his Grace, love and obey his Law.
This is the total work of man, and this
Will crown you here with Peace and there with Bliss.
“The Day of Doom,” however, was far more popular than the better poetry that Wigglesworth wrote at other times. It was the most popular book of the century in America. People memorized its easy, jingling meter just as they might have memorized ballads or, at a later day, Mother Goose rimes; and the grim description became “the solace,” as Lowell says, “of every fireside, the flicker of the pine-knots by which it was conned perhaps adding a livelier relish to its premonitions of eternal combustion.” The popularity of “The Day of Doom” shows that in the very years when the Royalists were returning to power in England the Puritans were greatly in the majority in New England. The reaction marked by Morton, Ward, and Roger Williams was only beginning. Moreover, if it had been the only “poetry” of the period, we should have to admit that the Puritans were almost hopelessly unpoetical.
Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) proves the contrary, and in doing so she proves how the love of beauty can manage to bloom under the bleakest skies. Her talent was assuredly a “flower in a crannied wall.” She was born in England in 1612 and was married at the age of sixteen, as girls often were in those days, to a man several years older, Simon Bradstreet. In 1630 she came to Massachusetts with her husband and her father. Both became eminent in the affairs of the colony. In the family they were doubtless sober and probably dull. Mrs. Bradstreet kept house under pioneer conditions in one place after another, and when still less than forty years old had become the mother of eight children. Yet somewhere in the rare moments of her crowded days – and one can imagine how far apart those moments must have been – she put into verse “a compleat Discourse and Description of The Four Elements, Constitutions, Ages of Man, Seasons of the Year; Together with an exact Epitome of the four Monarchies, viz., the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, Roman” [this means five long poems, and not two]; “also a dialogue between Old England and New concerning the late troubles; with divers other pleasant and serious poems.” All these she wrote without apparent thought of publication, for the purely artistic reason that she enjoyed doing so; and in 1650 – halfway between “The Bay Psalm Book” and “The Day of Doom" – they were taken over to London by a friend, and there put into print as the work of "The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in America.”
Poetry was more than a diversion for Anne Bradstreet; it must have been a passion. As a girl she had been allowed to read in the library of the Puritan Earl of Lincoln, over whose estate her father was steward. And here she had fallen under the spell of the lesser poets of her age, naturally not the dramatists, whom the Puritans opposed. So, after their fashion, and particularly in the fashion of a Frenchman, Du Bartas, whose works were popular in an English translation, she wrote her quaint “quarternions,” or poems on the four elements, the four seasons, the four ages, and the four “humours,” and capped them all with the four monarchies. These are interesting to the modern reader only as examples of how the human mind used to work. Chaucer had juggled with the same materials; Ben Jonson had been fascinated with them. It was a literary tradition to develop them one by one, to set them in debate against each other, and to interweave them into corresponding groups: childhood, water, winter, phlegm; youth, air, spring, blood; manhood, fire, summer, choler; and old age, earth, autumn, melancholy.
Yet her chief claim on our interest is founded on the shorter poems, in which she took least pride. In these she showed her real command of word and measure to express poetic thought. Her “Contemplations,” for example, is as poetic in thought as Bryant’s “Thanatopsis,” or as Lanier’s “The Marshes of Glynn,” to which it stands in suggestive contrast (see pp. 161 and 357). The former two are on the idea that nature endures but man passes away. This was never long absent from the Puritan mind, but when it came to the ordinary Puritan it was likely to be cast into homely and prosaic verse, as in the epitaph:
The path of death it must be trod
By them that wish to walk with God.
Anne Bradstreet, taking the same observation, wrote with noble dignity:
O Time the fatal wrack of mortal things,
That draws oblivions curtain over kings,
Their sumptuous monuments, men know them not,
Their names without a Record are forgot,
Their parts, their ports, their pomp’s all laid in th’ dust
Nor wit, nor gold, nor buildings, scape time’s rust;
But he whose name is grav’d in the white stone1
Shall last and shine when all of these are gone.
Yet as a strictly Puritan poetess she did only one part of her work. She was even more interesting as an early champion of her sex. She did not go so far as to assert equality of the sexes; that was too far in advance of the age for her imagination. But she did contend that women should be given credit for whatever was worth “small praise.” This appears again and again in her shorter poems.
Let Greeks be Greeks, and women what they are
Men have precedency and still excell,
It is but vain unjustly to wage warre;
Men can do best, and women know it well;
Preheminence in all and each is yours;
Yet grant some small acknowledgment of ours.
Naturally she was full of pride in the achievements of Queen Elizabeth, a pride which she expressed in a fine song “In Honour of that High and Mighty Princess”:
From all the Kings on earth she won the prize.
Nor say I more then duly is her due,
Millions will testifie that this is true.
She hath wip’d off th’ aspersion of her Sex,
That women wisdom lack to play the Rex:
Spains Monarch, sayes not so, nor yet his host:
She taught them better manners, to their cost.
The Salique law, in force now had not been,
If France had ever hop’d for such a Queen.
But can you Doctors now this point dispute,
She’s Argument enough to make you mute.
Since first the sun did run his nere run race,
And earth had once a year, a new old face,
Since time was time, and man unmanly man,
Come shew me such a Phœnix if you can?
Then follows a recital of Elizabeth’s proudest triumphs, and assertions of how far she surpassed Tomris, Dido, Cleopatra, Zenobya, and the conclusion:
Now say, have women worth? or have they none?
Or had they some, but with our Queen is’t gone?
Nay Masculines, you have thus taxt us long,
But she, though dead, will vindicate our wrong.
Let such as say our Sex is void of Reason,
Know tis a Slander now, but once was Treason.
Anne Bradstreet foreshadowed the “woman’s movement” of to-day by two full centuries, and thus showed how even the daughter of one Puritan governor of Massachusetts and the wife of another could be thinking and aspiring far in advance of her times.
BOOK LIST
General References
Otis, W. B. American Verse, 1625–1807. 1909. (A full and valuable bibliography appended.)
Tucker, S. M. In chap. ix of Cambridge History of American Literature, Vol. I, Bk. I.
Tyler, M. C. A History of American Literature. Colonial Period (1607–1765), Vol. I, chaps. x, xi. 1878.
Individual Authors
The Bay Psalm Book. The Whole Booke of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into English Metre, etc. 1640.
Available Editions
A Reprint, 1862.
Facsimile Reprint for the New England Society in the City of New York, 1903.
Collections
Cairns, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 73–81.
Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L. Cyclopedia of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 16–18.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 211–216.
Michael Wigglesworth. The Day of Doom; or, a Description of the Great and Last Judgment, etc. (1662). Meat out of the Eater: or, Meditations concerning the necessity, end and usefulness of Afflictions unto God’s Children, etc. (1670). God’s Controversy with New England (1662). Vanity of Vanities (appended to 3d edition of The Day of Doom).
Available Editions
The Day of Doom, 1867.
God’s Controversy with New England. Proceedings of the Mass. Hist. Soc., 1871.
Biography
Memoir of Michael Wigglesworth. J. W. Dean. 1871. See also M. W.,* earliest poet among Harvard graduates. Proceedings of the Mass. Hist. Soc., 1895.
Collections
Boynton, Percy H. American Poetry, pp. 18–23, 598–600.
Cairns, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 163–177.
Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L. Cyclopedia of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 57–59.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. II, pp. 3–19.
Anne Bradstreet. The Tenth Muse lately sprung up in America, or Several Poems, compiled with great Variety of Wit and Learning, full of Delight – by a Gentlewoman in those parts. 1650.
Available Editions
The Club of Odd Volumes, 1897.
The Works of Anne Bradstreet, in Prose and Verse. J. H. Ellis, editor. 1867. This contains a valuable memoir.
The Works of Mrs. Anne Bradstreet, together with her prose remains, and with an introduction by Charles Eliot Norton.
Biography and Criticism
Campbell, Helen. Anne Bradstreet and her Time. 1891.
Tyler, M. C. American Literature. Colonial Period, Vol. I, chap. x.
Collections
Boynton, Percy H. American Poetry, pp. 1–8, 594–598.
Cairns, W. B. Early American Writers, pp. 146–164.
Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L. Cyclopedia of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 47–52.
Stedman and Hutchinson. Library of American Literature, Vol. I, pp. 311–315.
