Kitabı oku: «A Practical Enquiry into the Philosophy of Education», sayfa 19

But the question which will be asked here is, "Are children capable of all this?" – We unhesitatingly answer, from long experience, that they are. Whoever doubts the fact has only to try. Can a child not understand that a distinction ought to be made between the person in a family who endeavours to make all happy, and another whose constant aim is to make them all miserable? – Can he not understand, that the parent who refuses to punish a wicked child, is in effect bribing others to join him in his wickedness? – Can he not understand that a debt due by one, may be paid by another? – and that a simple reliance on the word of his benefactor, followed by submission to his will, may be all that is required to secure his discharge? – No one will say that a child is incapable of understanding these simple truths; and if he can comprehend them, he can be made to understand and appreciate the leading truths of the gospel. The teacher has only himself clearly to perceive them; and then, divesting the truths of those unnecessary technicalities which are sometimes, it is feared, used very improperly and unnecessarily, he ought to convey them to the child, either orally, or by some simple catechism suited for the purpose. Wherever this is done in effect, there education will prosper; and when it shall become general among the young, it will be found to be "as life from the dead."

CHAP. X
On the Application of our Knowledge to the Common Affairs of Life

There is another point connected with the practical use of our knowledge, which deserves a separate and careful consideration. It is the method of applying our knowledge, or rather the lessons derived from our knowledge, to the common and daily affairs of life. In this exercise both old and young are equally concerned; – but it is evident that youth is the proper time for training to its practice.

To acquire this valuable art, the pupils in every seminary ought to be regularly and frequently exercised in the application of their lessons; – first, when they have been drawn from a particular subject, which has occupied their attention for the day; and afterwards generally, from any part of their previous knowledge. To illustrate what we mean by this application of our knowledge, let us suppose a person placed in difficult circumstances, and that he is desirous of knowing the path of duty, and the particular line of conduct which he should pursue. If he is to trust to himself for the information required, it is evident that he must either fall back upon his previous knowledge, and the instructions he has already received; or he must go forward upon a mere conjecture, or on chance, which is always dangerous. All knowledge is given expressly for such cases, and especially Scripture knowledge; the great design of which is, "that the man of God may be thoroughly furnished to good works." But if the person has not been trained to make use of his knowledge in this way and for this purpose, he will be nearly as much at a loss as if his knowledge had never been received. Hence the great importance of training the young early and constantly to draw upon their knowledge for direction and guidance in every variety of situation in which the parent or teacher can suppose them to be placed in future life. By this means they will be prepared for encountering temptation, which is often more than the half of the battle; – they will form the habit of acting by rule, instead of being carried forward by fashion, by prejudice, or by chance; – and they will soon acquire a manly confidence, in deciding and acting, both as to the matter and the manner, of performing all that they are called upon to do, in every juncture, and whether the duty be important in the ordinary sense of that term or otherwise.

For this special mode of applying knowledge, we have not only the indications plainly given in Nature, which we have endeavoured to illustrate, but we have also Scripture precept, and Scripture example. Leaving the numerous instances in the Old Testament, we shall confine ourselves to a few given by our Lord himself, and his apostles. For example, he prepared his disciples for the temptations which the love of worldly goods would throw in the way of their escape from the destruction of Jerusalem, by enjoining them to "Remember Lot's wife." Now let us observe how a teacher, in communicating the history of Lot's wife for the first time, would have prepared these disciples for such a difficulty in the same way. When they had read, that while fleeing for her life, the love of her worldly goods made her sinfully look back, so that she was turned into a pillar of salt; the obvious lesson drawn from this would be, that "we ought to be on our guard against worldly mindedness;" – and the application of that lesson to the coming circumstances would have been something like this. "When you are commanded to flee from Jerusalem for your lives, and remember that your worldly goods are left behind, what should you do?" – "We should not turn back for them." "From what do you get that lesson?" – "From the conduct and fate of Lot's wife."

In a similar way, the apostle James prepared Christians for humble resignation and patient endurance under coming trials, by calling to their remembrance "the patience of Job." He stated the trials to which they were to be exposed, and then he directed their attention to the Scripture example which was to regulate them in their endurance of them. Now it is obvious that a teacher, in communicating the history of Job to the young, should follow this example, and should make the same use of it that the apostle did, not only by drawing the lesson, that he "ought to be patient," but in applying that lesson to temptations to which the child is likely to be exposed, as James did to the circumstances in which he knew Christians were to be placed. As for example, when the child had drawn the lesson, that "we should be patient under suffering," the teacher might apply it in a great variety of ways, each of which would be a delightful exercise of mind to the child, – would impress the lesson and its source more firmly upon the memory, – and would prepare him for the circumstances in which the lesson might be required. Were the teacher accordingly to ask, "If you were confined by long continued sickness; – or if you were suffering under great pain; – or if you were oppressed by the cruelty of others, and could not help yourself; – or, if you were grieved by being separated from your friends, – what would be your duty?" The answer to each would be, "We ought to be patient." – "From what do you get that lesson?" – "From the conduct of Job, who was patient under his sufferings."

The apostle Paul follows a similar plan, in applying the practical lessons drawn from the conduct of the Israelites in the wilderness, for fortifying the Corinthians against temptations to which they were likely to be exposed,²⁶ and tells them that this is the use to be made of Old Testament history. These lives are "ensamples," and are "written for our admonition upon whom the ends of the world are come." – In like manner he forewarned the Hebrews against discontent and covetousness,²⁷ by drawing a general lesson from a special promise made to Joshua; and then exhorts every Christian to apply it to himself personally, by employing the language which he puts into their mouths, "The Lord is my helper, and I will not fear what man can do unto me."

In the same way, when our Lord repeatedly says, "Have ye not read?" and, "Thus it is written," he gives us obvious indications of the importance of the duty of thus preparing for temptation, by the application of our lessons from Scripture. They are each and all of them examples of practical lessons derived from knowledge formerly acquired, and now employed in the way of application, to connect that knowledge with corresponding circumstances as they occur in ordinary life. The lesson, it will be observed, and as we formerly explained, is always made the connecting link which unites the two; and without which there is no such thing as the bringing of knowledge and its use together, when that knowledge is required. In other words, without the lesson, knowledge is useless; and, without the application of the lesson, knowledge is never used. Both therefore are necessary, and both should be rendered familiar to the young. It is only necessary here to observe, that in teaching the children to draw the lessons, the teacher proceeds forwards from the knowledge communicated, and, by deducing the lesson, prepares the child for the events in life when they shall be necessary; – but in applying the lessons, he proceeds backwards, from the events, through the lesson to the knowledge from which it is derived. We have a beautiful example of this in the recorded temptations of our Lord. He was tempted to turn stones into bread; here was the event which required a knowledge of the corresponding duty; and he immediately applied the lesson that "we should not distrust God," and through this lesson, though not expressed, he went directly back to the source from which it was drawn, by saying, "Thus it is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word of God." When in like manner he was tempted to throw himself from the temple, he immediately, through the lesson "that we should not unnecessarily presume on the goodness of God," went to the passage of Scripture from which it was drawn; – and, in the same way, when tempted to worship Satan, there was precisely the same process; – a lesson, derived from previous knowledge and applicable to the circumstances, used as a uniting link to make the duty and the Scripture exactly to correspond.

Of doing all this which we have described above; even children are capable. This has been again and again proved by repeated experiments, and now by extensive experience in many schools. The difficulties of introducing it, even for the first time in any seminary, do not lie with the children, who in every case have shewn themselves quite adequate to the exercise; and wherever it has been followed up with corresponding energy, they have been raised much higher in the grade of intelligence and mental capacity by its means. This will be evident from the following, taken from among many examples.

The criminals in Edinburgh Jail during the short time they were under instruction, acquired considerable facility in this valuable art. The report states, that "some of them were afterwards exercised on the application of the lessons. This part consists in supposing certain circumstances and temptations, to which they may be exposed in ordinary life, and then leaving them, by a very profitable, and usually a very pleasant operation of their own minds, in reference to these, to call up to their recollection, and to hold in review, the whole accumulated range of their previous knowledge. Among the various classes of things thus brought in order before the eye of the mind, they are easily taught to discriminate all those precepts and examples which are analogous to the cases supposed, from which again they very readily select appropriate lessons to guide them in these emergencies; thus linking the lessons to the circumstances, which is done in the previous exercise of deducing them; and then the circumstances to the lessons; and in this manner, establishing a double tie between the understanding and the conscience.

"For example, a woman from the Lock-up House, being asked how she ought to conduct herself when the term of her confinement was expired? answered, That she ought not to return to her sinful courses, or wicked companions, lest a worse fate should befal her. When again interrogated where she got this lesson, she immediately referred to the case of Lot, who, being once rescued from captivity by Abraham, returned again to wicked Sodom, where he soon lost all his property, and escaped only with his life. Another being asked what she should do, when involved in a quarrel with troublesome companions? replied, That she should endeavour to be at peace, even though she should lose a little by it; and produced as her authority the conduct of Abraham, who when Lot's herdsmen and his could not agree, gave Lot his choice of the country, in order to secure peace."

The children in Aberdeen also found no difficulty in perceiving the use, and in applying the lessons to their common affairs. The report of that Experiment states, that "the most important part of the exercise, – that which shewed more particularly the great value of this System, and with which the Meeting were especially struck, – was the appropriate application of the lessons from Scripture, which they had previously drawn. They were desired to suppose themselves placed in a great variety of situations, and were asked how they ought to conduct themselves in each of these. A few examples may be given, though it is quite impossible to do justice to the subject. A boy, for instance, was asked, 'If your parents should become infirm and poor, how ought you to act towards them?' 'I ought,' replied the boy, 'to work, and help them.' And being asked, 'Whence he drew that lesson?' he referred to the conduct of Ruth, who supported Naomi and herself, by gleaning in the fields. – A girl was asked, 'If your mother were busy, and had more to do in the family than she could easily accomplish, what ought you to do?' Her answer was, 'I ought to give her assistance;' and she referred to the conduct of Saul, in assisting his father to recover the asses which were lost; and to that of David, in feeding his father's sheep when his brothers were at the wars. – A little boy was asked, 'If your parents were too indulgent, and seemed to give you all your own will, what ought you to do?' 'I ought not to take it,' replied the boy very readily; and added, that it was taking his own will that caused the ruin of the prodigal son. Another boy being asked, 'If you should become rich, what would be your duty to the poor?' answered, 'I ought to be good to the poor; but it would be better to give them work than to give them money; for Boaz did not give Ruth grain, but bade his shearers let some fall, that she might get it by her own industry.'"

In the Experiment in London, a child was asked, "When you live with brothers and sisters who are wicked, what should you do?" and answered, "I should not join with them in their sins." And when asked where she got that lesson, answered, "From Joseph, who would not join with his brothers in their sin." – Another was asked, "When you see others going heedlessly on in the commission of sin, what should you do?" and answered, "I should warn them of their danger;" and referred to Noah, who warned the wicked while building the ark. – Again, "When people about you are given to quarrel, what should you do?" We should endeavour to make peace; and referred to Abram endeavouring to remain at peace with Lot's herdsmen. – "When you have grown up to be men and women, what should you do?" "We should go to a trade, and be industrious;" and referred to Cain and Abel following their different employments. – "When two situations occur, one where you will get more money, but where the people are wicked and ungodly; and the other, where you will get less money, but have better company, which should you choose?" "The good company, though with less money;" and referred to Lot's desire for riches taking him to live in wicked Sodom, where he lost all that he had. – "When your parents get old, and are unable to support themselves, what should you do?" "We should work for them;" and referred to Ruth gleaning for the support of her old mother-in-law; and another referred to Joseph bringing his father to nourish him in Goshen. – "When your parents or masters give you any important work or duty to perform, what should you do?" "We should pray to God for success, and for his direction and help in performing it;" and referred to Abraham's servant praying at the well. – "When we find people wishing to take advantage of us and cheat us, what should we do?" "Leave them;" and referred to Jacob with his family leaving Laban. – "Were any one to tempt you to lie or commit a sin, what should you do?" "We ought not to be tempted;" and referred to Abraham making Sarah tell a lie in Egypt. – "How should you behave to strangers?" "We should be kind to them;" and referred to Lot lodging the angels. – "Were a master or mistress to have the choice of two servants, one clever, but ungodly, and the other not so clever, but pious, which one should be chosen?" "The pious servant;" and referred to Potiphar, whom God blessed and prospered for Joseph's sake. – "When any one has injured us, what should we do?" "Forgive them;" and referred to Joseph forgiving and nourishing his brethren. – "When you have once escaped the snares and designs of bad company, what should you do?" "We should never go back again;" and referred to Lot going back again to live in Sodom from which he at last escaped only with his life.

In the account given of the Newry Experiment, the boys were equally ready in applying for their own benefit the lessons they had drawn from their knowledge of anatomy and physiology. The account says, that "the most interesting, as well as the most edifying part of the examination, and which exhibited the great value of this method of teaching the sciences to the young, was the application of these lessons to the circumstances of ordinary life. Circumstances were supposed, in which they or others might be placed, and they were required to apply the lessons they had drawn for their direction, and for regulating their conduct in every such case. This they did with great sagacity, and evident delight, and in a manner which convinced the audience that the few hours during which they had been employed in making these acquisitions, instead of being irksome and laborious, as education is too often considered by the young, were obviously among the happiest and the shortest they had ever spent in almost any employment, – their play not excepted. We shall give a specimen of these, and the answers given, as nearly as can be recollected.

"The case of walking in a frosty day was supposed, and they were asked what, in that case, ought to be done? The answer was, That we should take care not to fall. Why? Because the bones are easily broken in frosty weather. – When heated and feverish in a close room, what should be done? Let in fresh air; because it is the want of oxygen in the air we breathe that causes such a feeling, but which the admission of fresh air supplies. – When troubled with listlessness, and impeded circulation, what should we do? Take exercise; because the contraction of the muscles by walking, working, or otherwise, forces the blood to the heart, and through the lungs, by which health and vigour is promoted. – Where should we take exercise? In the country, or in the open air; because there the air is purer than in a house or a town, where fires, smoke, frequent breathing, and other things, render the atmosphere unwholesome. – Would breathing rapidly, without exercise, not nourish the blood equally well? No; because although more air be drawn into the lungs, there would be no more blood to combine with its oxygen. – What should be done, when candles in a crowded church burn dim, although they do not need snuffing? Let in fresh air; because the air is then unwholesome for want of oxygen; which, carried to a great extent, would cause fainting in the people, and would extinguish the candles themselves. – When a fire is like to go out, what should be done? Blow it up with bellows. Why not by the mouth? Because the air blown from the lungs has lost great part of its oxygen, by which alone the fire burns. Why then does a fire blown with the mouth burn at all? Because part of the oxygen remains, said one boy; and another added, "and because part of the surrounding air is blown in along with it."

At the second meeting with these boys, occasioned by the unexpected circumstances formerly alluded to, they were summarily, and without previous notice, taken from their school to another public meeting, without knowing for what purpose they were brought, and had to undergo a still more searching examination on what they had been previously taught. Here again they shewed their dexterity in making use of their lessons, by the application of them, and proved that they had been doing so to themselves in the intercourse which they had had with their relations at home. The account goes on to say, that "they were then more fully and searchingly examined than at first; and there being more time, they were much longer under the exercise. It was then found, that the information formerly communicated was not only remembered, but that the several truths were much more familiar, in themselves and in their connection with each other, than they had been at the former meeting. This had evidently arisen from their own frequent meditations upon them since that time, and their application of the several lessons, either with one another, their parents, or themselves. The medical gentlemen were again present, and professed themselves equally pleased. The lessons, with considerable additions, were also given, and the applications especially were greatly extended. In these last they appeared to be perfectly at home; and relevant circumstances might have been multiplied for double the time, without their having any difficulty in applying the lessons, and giving a reason for their application."

But the most satisfactory of all the experiments on this point, as implying the possession of a well-cultivated mind, holding at command an extensive field of useful knowledge, was the one in Leith, although from accident, or inadvertence on the part of the reporter, a large portion of it has been lost to the public. The following fragment, however, will be sufficient to shew its nature and its value. The examinator wished "to ascertain the power which the children possessed of applying the passage to their own conduct; and for this purpose, he proposed several circumstances in which they might be placed, and asked them to show how this portion of Scripture directed them to act. – Supposing, said he, that your father and mother were to neglect to take you to church next Sunday, would that be wrong? – Yes. – From what do you get that lesson? And when he was twelve years old, they went up to Jerusalem after the custom of the feast. – Is it right that children should go to church with their parents? Yes. – Why? Because Jesus went with his parents. – Would it be right for you to go out of church during the time of the service? No. – Why? Joseph and Mary remained till the service was over.

"The next point to be ascertained was, whether the children were able, not only to perceive what passages of Scripture were applicable in particular circumstances, but also to find out what circumstances in life those passages might be applied to. For this purpose, Mr Gall asked, 'Could you tell me any circumstances which may happen, in which you may be called on to remember that Joseph and Mary attended public worship?' – If a friend were to take dinner or tea with us, that should not detain us from attending church. – Idle amusements should not detain us from church; and nothing should keep us from it but sickness.

"Mr Gall again expressed his unabated satisfaction at the results of the examination, in proving the intellectual acquirements of the children. But so important did the application of the lessons appear to him, that he must trespass still further upon the time of the meeting by a more severe test of the children's practical training on this particular point. It was a test which he believed to be altogether new to them; but if they should succeed, it will prove still more satisfactorily, that their knowledge of Scripture has made it become, in reality, a light to their feet, and a lamp to their path.

"Mr Gall then produced a little narrative tract, which he read aloud to the children; and after the statement of each moral circumstance detailed in it, he asked the children whether it was right or wrong. When the children answered that it was right, he required them to prove that it was so, by some statement in the word of God, because the Bible should to them, and to every Christian, be the only standard of what is right and wrong; and so, in the same manner, when they said that it was wrong, he required them also to prove it from Scripture.

"As soon as the children perceived what was wanted, passages of Scripture, both of precept and example, were brought forward with as much readiness and discrimination as before. The only exception, was one or two quotations from the Shorter Catechism in proof of their positions, which were of course rejected, as deficient of the required authority."

The concluding remarks by the Right Honourable and Reverend reporters of the Experiment in Edinburgh, may with propriety be here given, as it is applicable, not only to prison discipline, but to education in general. "The result of this important experiment," they say, "was, in every point, satisfactory. Not only had much religious knowledge been acquired by the pupils, and that of the most substantial, and certainly the least evanescent kind; but it appeared to have been acquired with ease, and even with satisfaction – a circumstance of material importance in every case, but especially in that of adult prisoners. But the most uncommon and important feature of it was, the readiness which they, in this short period, had acquired of deducing Practical Lessons from what they had read or heard, for the regulation of their conduct. Every leading circumstance in Scripture, by this peculiar feature of the System, was made to reflect its light on the various common occurrences of ordinary life, by which the pupils themselves were enabled to judge of the real nature of each particular act, and to adopt, or to shun it, as the conscience thus enlightened should dictate. The acting and re-acting, indeed, of every branch of the System, upon each other, interweaves so thoroughly the lessons of Scripture with the feelings and thoughts of their minds, and associates them so closely with the common circumstances of life, that it is almost impossible that either the portions of the Bible which they have thus learned, or the practical lessons thus drawn from them, should, at any future period, escape from their remembrance. The evolutions of their future life, will disclose circumstances which they are prepared to meet, by having lessons laid up in store, adapted to such occurrences; and especially, when the mental habit is formed of applying Scripture in this manner, there is scarcely an event which can happen, but against its tempting influence they will be fortified by the armour of divine truth. – Their compliance with temptation, should that take place, will not be done without a compunction of conscience, arising from some pointed and warning example that comes in all its urgency before their minds; – and they will, when seduced from rectitude, have a light within them, and a clue of divine truth, to guide them out of the dark and mazy labyrinth of error and crime, into the path of duty and virtue. It is God alone that can bless such instruction, and render it savingly efficacious; but surely the inference is fair, that this System furnishes us with an instrument, which, if skilfully employed, will effect all that man can do for his erring brother or sister."