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CHAPTER V.
EMBALMING, FROM THE EGYPTIANS DOWN TO OUR DAY

Here facts are almost entirely wanting, and the history of the art we are studying, can only be followed in the recitals of historians, to control whose veracity we have no longer those monuments which Egypt offers us in such great numbers. Among the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, and all modern nations, we see the honours of embalming accorded to kings, princes, and men of distinction; but no tomb that has been opened, has rendered a single mummy so perfect, as those which we admire among the Egyptians; and if some rare and distant examples inform us of a durable preservation, the marvellous and extraordinary details accompanying it causes us to doubt the fact itself.

Thus, on the assertion of Gabriel Clauder, they saw in the time of St. Augustin, the bodies of Alexander, and of Ptolemy; their tomb has been visited for many ages, and they were enabled to distinguish the skin preserved with the members. But, continued they, all bodies do not resemble that of Alexander the Great, which was during his life, according to the report of Plutarch, and of Quintus Curtius, of a composition so rare and wonderful, that his skin, mouth, and all his person, rendered a very agreeable odour, and perfumed his clothes. It is said that his corpse, by the negligence of his friends and of his captains, remained several days without being embalmed, and that, nevertheless, when they went to visit it, it was found sound, without blemish, having even the complexion as fresh and florid as if he had been living, although he died of a continued fever: his appearance was so natural that the Egyptians and Chaldeans, who were charged to embalm him after their own manner, were at first afraid to approach him, thinking he might not be dead.

Such marvellous accounts are not sufficiently in harmony with the rigorous course which we have thus far followed, to induce us seriously to discuss them; we confine ourselves to the statement of each down to our own day, where well established facts will offer ample matter for reflection.

The Jewish people, who, like others, testified their respect for the dead, never admit the care of embalming the body as a common usage. Thus, Abraham purchased the field where Sarah was buried; Joseph had the body of his father magnificently embalmed; Moses only carried away the bones of Joseph; David praised the people of Gilead, for having buried with pomp Saul and his sons, &c. In most of these examples, no mention is made of embalming; nevertheless, the body of Jesus Christ was embalmed.

The following is nearly the method: each sex took care of its dead; they, first of all, close the mouth and eyes of the expired person, afterwards they shaved, washed, and rubbed it with perfumes; they tied it with bands, and buried it in several cloths of very fine linen or woollen, and finally, they put it into the sepulchre. Cornelius Jansenius thinks that the myrrh and aloes which they employed, had the virtue powerfully to resist putrefaction. It is useless to say that this opinion is without foundation; that the great quantities of aromatics which they consumed, was rather for pomp, than for the long preservation of the subject. They took no pains to dry the body; they did not disembarrass it of the intestines, and, in spite of all these odoriferous drugs, as Penicher justly remarks, decomposition must soon have revealed itself, as was testified by the body of Lazarus when resuscitated.

Neither did the Persians, probably, propose by embalming, any thing beyond a very limited preservation; the passage which we cited in the first chapter is in proof of this. Besides, this custom with them does not possess a general character. Cyrus, King of Persia, said to his children: “when I have ceased to live, place my body neither in silver, nor in gold, nor in any other coffin, but return it immediately to the earth, for how can it be more happily and more desirably disposed, than to be returned to that which produces and which nourishes most excellent things?” It will be perceived, that Cyrus, in forbidding that any care should be taken with his body, does not allude to embalming, which, of all other means, would have been the most efficient in preventing its elements from returning to the common mother. The Greeks and the Romans, among whom we have particularized some examples of embalming, practised it in a coarse and imperfect manner. The examination of their method would be here without interest.

In order to recover some traces of this art, we must refer to De Bils, Ruysch, Swammerdam, Clauderus, &c. They only boast of their astonishing success, without giving us the means of studying their methods. What we do know of them suffices only to make us doubt, as we have seen, the perfection of their processes. De Bils, of whom we have not yet spoken, had a cabinet which excited the admiration of visiters; he never revealed his secret, and he even shed an odour of aromatics through his anatomical rooms, in order to deceive observers. Clauderus, who suspected the deception, applied his moistened finger to one of the bodies, and carrying it to his lips recognised the taste of salts. He started from this fact to attempt numerous researches, and succeeded in forming different compounds, of which the preservative powers are, without doubt, exaggerated; we shall give the analysis of them hereafter.

De Rasière, ècuyer, sieur Dèsenclosses, published in 1727, a description of a cabinet, in which he preserved a hundred specimens; the following extract from his pamphlet presents several descriptions of subjects skilfully prepared; it is preceded by an engraving, representing the cabinet, of which he gives the description.

Extract from the description of the cabinet of anatomy, of M. De Rasière, ècuyer, sieur Dèsenclosses, 1727

This cabinet is eighty feet long, by sixteen wide, the glass windows are double, and exposed to the south, with a good ceiling and boarded, which renders it very proper for the preservation of the curious pieces which it encloses, and which are more than one hundred in number, differently worked, and arranged so that entire men are placed in the inferior departments, and the infants in the superior; all the fleshy pieces are enclosed in glass cases, and the skeletons in niches covered by a curtain.

The whole so disposed, that the skeletons and muscular pieces are arranged alternatively. We see, also, entire carcases of men, so arranged, that the head, which is placed on the large bones, is crowned by the vertebræ, and the ribs are suspended above. This order, added to the quantity of paintings and gildings which embellish the cases and cornices, produces a very fine effect. The side which looks to the south, includes a great number of bottles of all sizes, and contains objects taken from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.

The middle of the cabinet is occupied by numerous interesting objects. We first perceive a large glass case, which includes all the internal parts of man, and fetuses of all ages, and a microscope to view the circulation of the blood. Then appears a horse’s skeleton, mounted by a skeleton cavalier, holding a sword in his hand; an air pump; an anatomical table, upon which is a corpse, and an anatomist in wax, standing before it, dissecting.

Among the pieces of the cabinet mentioned by M. De Rasière, the most remarkable are: In the first glass case, the preparation of Gotard’s skeleton, in which are distinctly displayed the four hundred and fifty-six muscles. Second case: partial preparation of the eyes and the tongue, of the head, of the body, of the arms and legs. Third case: preparation of the muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves of the right side, and the skeleton of the left side. The fifth case is a complete preparation, in which the skin and fat has only been removed, and all the parts beneath separated. We here observe, first, the ascending aorta, which carries the blood to all the superior parts; second, the carotid arteries, which supply the head; third, the temporal arteries; fourth, the radial arteries (pulse;) fifth, the crural arteries, and an infinity of others even to the most delicate branches. The veins are filled with a black fluid. Sixth, preparation of the veins of the arm. Seventh, jugular veins; eighth, veins of the foot; ninth, vena cava ascendens. Eighth case: a subject resembling accurately a mummy or embalmed body, such as are brought from Egypt. All the flesh is covered by the skin, through which may be seen the veins and arteries filled with congealed and coloured wax. The hair of the head, the beard, and all the hair of the body, as well as the nails, are still attached to it. The eleventh glass case encloses the body of Nicholas Lefort, aged eighty-three years, a native of Douai, in Flanders: this subject is peculiarly tasteful, every thing being naturally arranged; the external muscles are divested of their fat, and all the arteries, veins, and nerves, which ramify upon the muscles, skin, &c., have been preserved, which renders this preparation as curious as it was difficult of execution. Twelfth case: preparation of the nerves.

But the author is silent regarding the manner of making these preparations. Let us endeavour to find in the writings of the time, a description of processes capable of producing such results.

Penicher, in his chapter fifth, (of embalming according to the moderns,) gives us the composition and properties of balm. “It is composed,” says he, “of different mixtures, both fluid and solid, calculated to arrest putrefaction, either by the aromatic virtues of sulphur and volatile salts, medicaments which enter into its composition, or by a strong bitter principle which consists in very penetrating particles, the property of which is to consume and attenuate the crude matters, which disposes and hastens the body to corruption; or by remedies, inheriting a quantity of particles which dissipate and absorb all putrescent moisture, or by their viscosity agglutinating the parts which ferment and rarify too readily; or, finally, by their astringency, which, fixing these same parts, prevents the resolution of all.”

It is easy to perceive, by the explanations which precede, that the embalmers themselves possess no very clear ideas of the success which they obtained. The nomenclature which we give below, will justify the doubt we have expressed.

The powders, which constitute the base of the balm, are made of all parts of the plants which fulfil the indications so confusedly announced. Such were the roots of angelica, imperatoria, galanga, acorus, carolina, caryophillata, gentian, enula campana, valerian, Florentine iris, flambe, calamus aromaticus, ginger, pyrethrum, cyperus, dictamus, rosewood, sassafras, guiacum, juniper, box wood, citron bark, oranges, canella, cassia lignea, tan, nutmeg, mace, cloves, cubebs, spicknard, colocynth, bay-berries, juniper-berries, and myrtle-berries, gall-nuts, cypress, anis-seed, cumin-seed, fennel-seed, coriander-seed, cardamon-seed, long, white, and black pepper, rue-leaves, thyme, absynth, savin, horehound, mugwort, laurel, mint, myrtle, calomint, balm, balmgentle, marjorum, rosemary, sage, summer savory, wild-thyme, pennyroyal, mountain-mint, hyssop, nepeta, basilic, scordium, flowers of saffron, roses, pale and red, stæchas, centaury, melilot, chamomile, germander, chamæpitys, hypericum, caraway-seed, dill-seed, lavender.

Many gums and resins entered into the composition of balm, such as resin, Burgundy pitch, ship-pitch, gum elemi, assafœtida, aloes, myrrh, galbanum, acacia, tucamahaca, benzoin, styrax calamite, fluid styrax, turpentine, camphor, cedria, all the species of balm; wood of aloes, tartar, potash, from the lees of wine, civet, castor, musk, ambergris, labdanum, Jew’s pitch, asphaltum, pisasphaltum, slacked-lime, plaster, sulphur, common salt, rock-salt, saltpetre, alum, amber, &c.

The article of compound drugs, is not less extensive, such as the tincture of musk, ambergris, civet, benzoin, styrax, aloes, myrrh. The distilled oils and essences of the plants which we have named, – spirits of wine, distilled myrrh, aloes, and amber, – is excellent for the preservation of the fetus.

The salt of Clauderus has also enjoyed a great reputation; the following is its composition: Dissolve one pound of common salt with a pound of oil of vitriol in a crucible, apply a cover closely luted, and distil it gradually in a sand bath; you may pour off a spirit very excellent for a lotion; in the bottom of the crucible will remain a caput mortuum, which should be dissolved according to art, and after evaporation, you will have the salt so much esteemed by the author. We may add here the brine, which is described in the collections of Charles de Maetz, (chap. 100, et 194; and chap. 23 of the book entitled Chemia Rationalis, and also in the work of Blanchard,) they advise that after a corpse has been emptied and cleaned of its excretions, it be placed in a leaden coffin, and there macerated in a sufficient quantity of pure oil of turpentine, and after some days of maceration, to wash it with spirits of wine to remove the odour, then sprinkle it with a strong tincture of myrrh and aloes, which they call balsamum mortuorum, and that it be finally dried in the sun.

I shall not now enter into the endless discussions upon the different species of salts, which some boast of for embalming, whilst others consider them injurious to the preservation of bodies. I abstain also, from speaking of lime, to which, however, wonders have been attributed: thus it was lime which preserved the body of Afra: and in the year 1523, under the pontificat of Adrian VI., the body of Saint Thomas, the Apostle, was likewise found towards the Gulf of Coromandel, endued, and covered with a cement made of lime and urine; the bones were very white, and along side of him the spear of his lance, a part of the cane which had served him during his journey, and an earthen vase which had been sprinkled with his blood. Notwithstanding these remarkable examples, if they are true, the authors who relate them give no importance to the processes to which we owe them, they even complain of the sordid views of those, who, in order to augment the mass of matters, do not hesitate to mix thereto plaster, ashes, &c. We give the description of some of these mixtures composed of the substances which we have enumerated.

1. —Balsamic Wine.

Reduce these drugs to a coarse powder, macerate for a few hours in wine, and boil slightly.

Usages. – Lotion for the interior parts of the body; and to disinfect the chamber during the operation.

2. —Compound Brandy.

Macerate in a sea-bath for twenty-four hours, in fifteen pints of best brandy, with as much distilled vinegar.

3. —Vinegar for washing the head, the breast, the belly, and for injections.

Reduce to a coarse powder, and macerate in forty pints of rose-vinegar; then strain for use.

4. —Another.

Let it boil a little, and add two pints of brandy; better than the preceding.

The embalmer ought to have several large sponges; about four pounds of tow to dry the blood and absorb the powders; cotton for the mouth, nose, and ears; coarse brush for rubbing the exterior of the body with the liniment. The artist should have, besides, two ells of cere-cloth, which he can prepare for himself after one of the following formulæ:

1. —Cere-cloth.

Melt and mix them over a slow fire, then draw the linen through it frequently so as to impregnate both sides.

2. —Another.

*Colophane, a species of resin, used by violinists to rub their cat-gut strings. —Tr.

Melt, and mix the whole with two pounds of mutton suet, and plunge the linen in it as before.

3. —Another.

Melt, and soak as before.

4. —Another.

Mix it with a sufficient quantity of oil to make a cerate.

1. —Mixture for soaking the linens, the chemise, the coiffure, and the bandages.

Melt the wax and the gum, add the balsam, and then the powdered aromatics for use.

2. —Another.

3. —Another.

The following are some formulæ of liniment, or fluid balsam, proper to rub the corpse both internally and externally.

1. —Liniment

Dissolve two ounces of true balsam into two pints of spirit of wine.

2. —Another Liniment.

3. —Another.

4. —Another Liniment.

5. —Another.

6. —Another.

The embalmer ought to furnish himself with silk ribands, of a black, violet, or white colour, according to the subject which he has to embalm, in order to tie the sheet by the two extremities, as well as a quarter of taffeta of one of the said colours to envelope the box containing the heart; further, five fathoms of cord to tie the corpse enveloped in cere-cloth. A coffin of lead in a coffin of wood. A barrel for the intestines. Bandages soaked in the liniment to bandage the body.

The following powder, as well as those which come after, are models which will serve according to the prudence of the embalmer for the cavities, for the parts sacrificed, and to form a crust around the body, or to be mixed with the adhesive plaster.

1. —Balsamic Powder.

Reduce to a powder those which ought to be powdered, and then strain them through a seive; but for the canella, and others of that class, they must be beaten and employed separately.

Baltazar Timaeus added salt and incense to his powder.

2. —Another Powder.

3. —Another.

Make a powder, and reserve the oil of spike for the unction.

4. —Another Powder.

Two measures of best spirits of wine to anoint and bathe all the cavities; after which, rub all the parts with turpentine, then stuff them with the following powder:

5. —Another Powder.

Powder and Mixture

Take a sufficient quantity of salt, and as much alum, to be mixed with myrrh, aloes, absynth, canella, cumin, cloves, mountain mint, pepper, and other aromatics; reduce to powder, sprinkling it with a little vinegar; then fill the body with it, rubbing with melted wax; then place the corpse in a leaden coffin. (Formula of P. Bellon.)

Penicher, who has furnished these different formulæ, will trace in the following pages the means of applying them.

There are many methods of embalming. The first, which is derived from the sacred scriptures, did not prevent the body from soon undergoing a change, since they neglected to remove the viscera, which cause corruption.

The second is that in which they confined their operations to emptying and cleaning the cavities which contain the intestines, the brain, and other noble parts, filling them afterwards with powdered aromatics, with tow and cotton.

The most common, and the most perfect which was practised, is the third; which consists in making incisions in all parts of the body, as we shall treat of further in the sequel.

We may add here a fourth mode, which regards only thin and fleshless bodies; it requires that the fat and flesh be removed, so that the skin and bones only remain. This method was not unknown to the Egyptians; and I have several times practised it, but the operation is laborious, and requires a skilful surgeon.

And finally, there is a last method of embalming the body, which is performed by making small openings in several parts of the body, under the armpits, the groins, and the anus, according to the ancient usage of the Egyptians. In order to commence this important operation, it is necessary, in the first place, that the surgeon who has the honour to be employed to embalm a king or some sovereign prince, under the orders of his first physician, in the presence of the crown officers, makes with a bistoury several gashes in the soles of the feet, in order to prove, by this operation, that the subject whose body he is about to open is really dead; which is a much more certain method than the unctions formerly used in similar cases, to recall the animal spirits, which they suspected of being only stupified. He will afterwards make a long incision, from the superior part of the sternum, to facilitate the examination of the contents of the chest, and to investigate the cause of disease and death, in order that a faithful written report may be made in concert with the physicians and surgeons of the king. All the parts contained in this cavity must be removed; he will afterwards descend to the lower belly and examine all their contents, which he will remove for that purpose, taking away every thing disposed to corruption. The parts which ought to be removed, are, among others, the throat, comprehending the trachea and œsophagus, the tongue, the eyes, the lungs, the heart, which will be divested of its pericardium, to be embalmed separately, as in ordinary cases; the stomach, the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, the intestines, the brain, the membranes, the fat, the blood, the serum, the sponges, and other matters which have served during the operation; put all these things in a barrel, to be carried to the place of destination. I know that some authors recommend the extirpation of the sexual organs of both sexes; but, besides that this would be to disfigure the body of a man, these parts may be preserved as well as others, and we owe respect to the instruments which have given us being. The surgeon having emptied these cavities, ought to work at the head, of which he will saw the cranium in the same manner as for anatomical demonstrations; and after he shall have examined and taken out the brain, the apothecary must carefully wash the cavity with aromatic wine and alcohol, and then fill it with the powder he will have prepared, and with cotton and tow soaked in some fluid balsam, in such a manner that there will be several layers of these stoupes and powder applied one above the other; after which replace the bones of the cranium and sew up the skin. He will then rub the head all over with one of the liquid balms, and bathe the face frequently with the same; envelope the head in a deep cap, which must be waxed; and after having insinuated into the nose, the mouth, the orbits of the eyes, and into the ears, cotton, soaked in liquid balm, the oils of nutmeg and cloves, he will labour at the abdomen, which must be washed in the same aromatic wine and alcohol, and rubbed with some of the aforesaid balms, and, finally, stuffed abundantly with powder and tow, until all these matters, distributed one above the other, will form the natural size and appearance of the abdomen, which must be sown up. The surgeon will take care that sections be made in the veins and arteries, in order to divest them of blood and humidity, which will be observed regarding the arms, thighs, legs, feet, heels, and other parts, as the back, shoulders, and buttocks, turning the corpse for this purpose, face towards the table; in these thick and fleshy places, the incisions must be long, deep, and numerous, penetrating even to the bone; and when the large vessels have been opened and purged of their blood, the pharmacien will fill all these spaces with the powder, and then sew them up with a needle and thread, after having sprinkled and bathed them in aromatic wine and alcohol; for it is necessary to take care and foment incessantly these parts; absorb from them, if possible, all humidity, and dry them with a sponge, previous to rubbing them with liquid balm, or one of the liniments, and fill them with the stoupes and said powders. Finally, the whole must be sowed up very neatly, so that the body may not be disfigured; for the same reason the face ought not to be incised, and we ought to endeavour so to preserve the features that they may be easily recognised, as I have recently witnessed on the opening of the coffin of a bishop, who was embalmed more than fifty years ago, and whose countenance was not in the least disfigured. For this reason, the artist will make use of fine powders, of aloes, myrrh, and others; as regards the body, he will rub and anoint it with the liniment which he will have prepared, adding thereto the powder, which he will make into a paste. And it is necessary to remark, that in proportion as he finishes the embalming of each part, the surgeon ought to bandage it with bandages of linen soaked in the liniment, so that they will resemble a species of corset, and in form of the letter x; let them make several convolutions one upon the other, to keep the parts of the body compact, and prevent the aromatics escaping from the cavities filled with them; these bandages should commence with the neck and finish with the feet and hands; they must be long and broad for the body, thighs, legs, and arms, but narrow and short for the fingers. This done, put on the chemise, washed as already recommended; ornament the subject with the exterior marks of dignity which were possessed during life time, and wrap it in a linen cloth soaked in liniment, which will serve as an adhesive plaster, which must be tied by the two extremities with a riband; above which, envelope it with the cere-cloth, which should be very closely bound with a cord. Finally, deposit the body in the coffin, the intervals of which must be filled with what remains of the powder, if there be any, or with parcels of dried aromatic herbs; close it and solder it with the utmost exactitude. Place on the outside a plate of copper, or some other durable metal, upon which has been engraved some appropriate inscription, to serve as a memento to posterity. The coffin must be placed in another of wood, which may be covered, if desirable, with a mortuary cloth.

This work being accomplished, we next come to the heart, which, as I have already stated, is separately embalmed. Supposing, then, that it has been removed from its place, divested of its pericardium, and both its ventricles opened, frequently washed with spirits of wine, and well cleaned of clotted blood, and of all other impurities that may be attached to it, and having allowed it to soak during the preceding operations in spirits of wine, or in distilled oil of turpentine, the apothecary now takes this viscera thus prepared; he fills the ventricles with powdered aloes, myrrh, benzoin, and styrax; he may even rub it with oil, or essence of nutmeg, cloves, and canella, as also with the tinctures of ambergris, musk, and civet; he will then arrange it in perfumed cotton, so as to make it contain the powders, which, with the oils, will form a paste, and he will place it in a little sack of cere-cloth, perfumed with some of the above named essences, with which also he will rub the box in which it is to be enclosed, both internally and externally, solder it carefully and envelope it in taffeta of a certain colour, which must be equally soaked and rubbed with essences or tinctures, and tied with ribands of the same colour; the violet colour is the most appropriate for ecclesiastics.

I remember having embalmed the heart of an Abbé of quality who had led an exemplary life: the odour which it exhaled was so sweet and agreeable, that it perfumed for several months the choir of the convent des Dames Religieuses, where it was deposited.

The body and the heart being thus embalmed, it only remains to speak of the viscera, the lungs, and the brain, &c.

Blancardus teaches us the method of embalming separately all these parts; but, for myself, I do not attempt it; when they are embalmed, and it is desired to place them in a barrel in this state, it is still requisite to have recourse to spirits of wine, of the best quality; our brandy and aromatic wines are not strong enough. In order the more easily to clean these viscera, they must be opened lengthwise, incisions must be made in the lungs, the spleen, the uterus, and the other contents of the cavities; cleaned of blood, serosity, and other foreign matter, which would cause them to putrefy in a little time; then washed with strong spirits of wine, having been previously washed in other liquors, and then arranged in a barrel, so that the powder first covers the bottom, placing a portion of the viscera on this first layer, and afterwards a second bed of powder; and continue thus to place the viscera and the powders alternatively, and by layers, until the barrel be nearly full, taking care that the last layer consists of this prepared powder, which must not be spared on this occasion. This barrel, which ought to be made of lead, should be placed in a second of wood, which must be accurately headed and pitched. (One wooden barrel only, was used for Henry III., King of France.)

Nevertheless, with all the precautions that could be taken to preserve these parts, in employing quantities of spirits of wine, aromatic powders, and other proper drugs, I have strong doubts that they would soon corrupt, and even before they could arrive at the place destined for their sepulture. Finally, when the body is to be publicly exposed on the bed where it died, the face should be washed with spirits of wine, and with true balm, refreshing it frequently; but when it is necessary to expose it on a bed of parade to remain several days, it is commonly sufficient to mould it in wax, and to show only its external figure, during the time that the body is upon the bed embalmed in a coffin. But, when the body itself of the deceased is exposed, it is necessary, in the first place, to paint and powder the hair or wig with a fine powder of pleasant odour; shave the beard, if there be any, fill the mouth with powder and cotton, to elevate and protrude the cheeks, to which may be applied a little rouge, as well as to the lips; if the natural eyes have been removed, replace them with artificial eyes; force perfumed cotton up the nostrils; the nose may be refreshed with a linen cloth liberally endued with true balm, during the time that the subject is withdrawn from public view; thus, the mouth, and generally all the parts that ought to be seen, will be in their natural state, to the end that they may be the more readily recognised. For this reason, there ought not to be made any scarifications, as it is expressly remarked in the library of Herodotus. “Each part,” says he, “is so perfectly preserved, that the hair of the eyebrows and eyelids, and even all the form of the body so well retain their appearance, that the figure and natural disposition is known with facility.”