Kitabı oku: «The history of Russian chest craft (19th – early 20th centuries). Collection of scientific articles», sayfa 2

Russian chests called «podgolovnik»: artistic style and cultural-historical context

Among Russian chest products, “podgolovniks” occupy a significant place, both in quality and quantity. Many of these items have been preserved in museum collections (they are presented in almost all the capital’s museums, and are often found in provincial ones, especially in the Russian North⁴⁵). This fact makes it easier to study this type of chest products, especially since there is a need to its research.

As a rule, independent scientific work is not devoted to certain types of Russian chest products. Most often, chests are considered in general reviews of museum collections or in articles related to certain problems of Russian chest production⁴⁶. Russian chests called «podgolovnik» were no exception: as an independent type of chest products, they received almost no attention.

The purpose of this paper is to identify the design and artistic features of chests-“podgolovniks”, to determine their place in the European history of chest production. The main tasks include: clarification of the role of external influences that took place in the process of the appearance of “podgolovnik” in Russia and the gradual formation of their artistic style, analysis of specific works. The research timeframe is XVI – XIX centuries.

While working on the article, information from special literature, both foreign and Russian, was used. Numerous items from domestic and foreign museums served as the research material.

It should be noted that only preliminary conclusions are currently possible on this topic. Further additions and adjustments are not excluded.

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By the definition of Pavel Savvaitov, «podgolovnik is a low chest or casket with an inclined lid, bound with iron, with an internal lock and with pulling out drawers for the jewels»⁴⁷.

One of the earliest mentions of the word «podgolovnik» occurs in 1574 in the Book of the Volokolamsk monastery parish⁴⁸. In the census of things by the archbishop of Kholmogory and Vazhsky Athanasius in 1702, a lot of chests are indicated, and among them «red leather podgolovnik is bound with carved tin-plated iron» in which money was kept⁴⁹. The «podgolovnik» is mentioned among the purchases of Catherine I in 1722⁵⁰.

The «podgolovnik» is an object made of wood, most often oak. It is shaped like a box with a beveled lid. As a rule, the lid consists of two parts, which are connected by hinges: a narrow one, located parallel to the bottom, and a wide, inclined one. The proportions of the podgolovniks were not the same. They ranged from very exquisite pieces to massive large chests. From the inside, the chests were divided by wooden plates into several compartments (their number is not strictly defined), often boxes were hung on the inner walls, equipped with an additional system of locks⁵¹. There are metal handles on the side walls of the podgolovniks. Products were upholstered with iron strips, either openwork or solid. Mica or green (sometimes red or of both colours) cloth was placed under them. A shaped iron plate protected the key hole. It was often decorated with engraving. Among the slotted metal ornament, sometimes there are inscriptions indicating the year of creation of the thing and the master (or owner)⁵². On the inside of the lid or on the walls of the northern items, you can find a painting⁵³. In the description of the property of the boyar Fyodor Shaklovity (XVII century) it is stated: «… Kolmogorsky podgolovnik, painted in gold, upholstered with white slotted iron…»⁵⁴.

It should be noted that the decoration of the «podgolovnik» was different. In most cases, it depended on the customer. There are both richly decorated items, and very modest in an artistic sense.

The «podgolovnik» served to store documents, valuables, money, letters, and they were placed under the traveler’s head on the way (this is considered an explanation of the name of this type of chests). The member of the Swedish embassy Iohann Keelburger wrote: «Podgolovniks are not made to be written on, because they are upholstered with various tinned iron hoops; Russians, on the other hand, write both in colleges and elsewhere, never except on their knees; but such podgolovniks are made for travelers for winter period and are very convenient for laying under the head in a sleigh, because it is known that they tend to put almost a bed in Russian sleighs». However, this purpose of the podgolovniks was not the only one. There are cases when they were the subject of equipment for hunters and were taken on the hunt.

Podgolovniks were common in all strata of the population: they were found in peasant huts, in the houses of the townspeople, and in the chambers of the highest nobility, and in the royal mansions⁵⁵. Such items have been made for a long time not only in the Russian North, but also in other regions of the country.

It is often stated that «podgolovnik» is a typical Russian product⁵⁶. This is not entirely true. A similar form of chests existed in many European countries (although the purpose of the items was sometimes different). Let us consider Russian «podgolovnik» against the background of foreign works.

In the collection of the department of folk art of the Russian Museum there is a «podgolovnik»⁵⁷, manufactured in 1750. It is of big size (34x55x42), the outer surfaces are upholstered with leather and smooth iron strips arranged as a grid. Inside each «cell» there are slotted rosettes with mica lining. In the corners of the lid and the top wall there are slotted strips in the form of triangles. On the face of the castle, in a zigzag frame, the inscription is engraved: «1750 September 23rd day of srk ivan chyupyatov». On the side walls there are curly handles. Inside «podgolovnik» there are twelve compartments, eight of which are with drawers. The «podgolovnik», which is probably of Kholmogory origin, is notable for its solidity and reliability. The symmetry of the ornament, its clarity, contribute to this impression. The main intention of the master was the direct purpose of the product as a repository of valuable items and documents. The general artistic solution of this chest is characterized by masculine roughness, severity, against the background of which all ornamental delights look like optional additions⁵⁸.

There is an interesting «podgolovnik» of small size (14.5x16.0x9.5) in the collection of the Sergiev Posad Museum Reserve⁵⁹. According to museum attribution, it was made in the 18th century in the village Pavlovo, Gorbatovsky district. The item is made of oak, tinted, bound with solid iron strips, between which there are four metal openwork plates (on the lid). The latter resemble a human figure with arms spread out to the sides. Under the pads there are pieces of red mica. There is a mortise lock on the front wall of the chest, and molded handles on the sides. The article in question is interesting not only as evidence of the widespread use of chests (they were made not only in the Russian North), but also as an illustration of their rich artistic potential. In contrast to the work from the department of folk art, the chest of the Sergiev Posad Museum Reserve is distinguished by its special privacy, even being like a toy, a kind of coziness in its external look.

English product («desk box», in a private collection)⁶⁰ is similar to the Russians’ in design and form. But other aspects are significantly different. The item is decorated with skillfully made carvings, consisting of images of dragons, rosettes, tulips-like flowers. The cover is flat. The product was used for writing⁶¹. The clarity, compositional balance of the ornament, confidently carved images testify to the experience of the master, his high professionalism.

Another english product (dated 1580—1620) which is now in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum⁶² is also interesting. It is made of oak inlaid with boxwood and bog oak (eight drawers inside are made of poplar). The upper part and the hinged lid of the product are decorated with strips of checkerboard ornament. Images of buildings in the style of decorative motifs adopted on «nonsuch» chests are placed on the front, back and side walls. Each side also has an inlaid image of an eight-pointed star. There is a metal mask on the front wall. This «podgolovnik» has different proportions compared to the previous one (it also served as a writing instrument). It testifies to the stability and «flexibility» of the form of this type of english chest products, to the variety of their decoration. English craftsmen in the 19th century made such items, decorated not only with mosaics from multi-colored pieces of wood, but also with patterns borrowed from «Berlin» woolen products⁶³.

German products («Geldwechsler-Schatulle», «Reise-Schreibpult») are similar to Russian and english in appearance⁶⁴. Their internal cavities are separated by boxes and shelves. Various techniques were used in the decoration. The craftsmen of the items under consideration, made in the 18th century from walnut, maple, birch and oak, turned to intarsia, painting and coloring. The decorative design of the products is based on a combination of geometric and floral motifs. A painted glass plate is placed in the center. There are brass handles and covers. In general, these are highly artistic works of the German Baroque, created by professional craftsmen. «Podgolovnik» served as a place for keeping money of the money changer and a traveller’s writing instrument.

Norwegian «podgolovnik»⁶⁵ dates back to 1751. It has the same construction as other things of this kind, but slightly different proportions. The lid rises with iron curly hinges, on the sides there are simple cast handles. From the inside, the chest has several shelves (not preserved). The surfaces of the product (except for the back and side ones) are divided into rectangular segments, in each of which, in a blue frame, there is a pictorial composition consisting of images of bouquets. They are painted in the fast, improvised manner of Norwegian wood painting. The rest of the surfaces are painted red. On the edges of the lid there are inscriptions in white paint: «Ek Ols Domis (?) Ann 1751». Perhaps the thing served as a travel chest for the official.

The English product is particularly noteworthy. It has other proportions, in its shape resembling a chest of drawers⁶⁶. It has a smooth slanted cover; the front and side walls are decorated with geometric and floral designs (low relief). The background is processed with shading. The lower half of the product slides out. The work is characterized by clarity, confidence in the work of the carver, and the easily readable ornament testifies to the rich experience of the master.

In the collection of the department of folk art of the Russian Museum there is a chest, in proportions resembling a chest of drawers (dates back to the 18th century)⁶⁷. Its front and side walls are upholstered with slotted iron plates with a floral ornament consisting of intertwining curls (background is brown velvet). The bottom and back side are reinforced with solid iron plates. There are several shelves and drawers inside the product, the lower part can be pulled out.

Such a parallel between the north Russian and english works is not accidental, in view of the close trade ties that were established between Russia and England through the northern ports in the middle of the 16th century⁶⁸. It is possible that the very type of chest product, called «podgolovnik» in Russia, penetrated from Western Europe precisely through the cities of the Russian North. Moreover, such cases are known in relation to other types of Russian folk art. The researcher of folk art Lev Dinces wrote about the European origin of the so-called «Vologda glass» (embroidery), which penetrated into Russia through english merchants who traded in Arkhangelsk⁶⁹. In other words, the introduction of «podgolovnik» into Russia was probably the result of a brief flourishing of Russian-English relations in the 16th century.

Comparison of all these items made their differences clear. As mentioned above, they are similar only in design and shape, in all other respects they are different. This is because chests were made in different historical and cultural settings for different customers. Russian masters, having appreciated the merits of foreign works, their convenient, practical forms, adopted only the construction⁷⁰. «Transplanted» in the Russian «soil», the Russian product acquired significant differences from the «originals», naturally became part of a number of domestic products. Thus, not the shape and design of this type of product has undergone changes depending on the place and time of production, but the purpose and decoration.

In this context, the question of influences loses its acuteness. It is only necessary to state that Russian and Western European artisans were participants of a single cultural process. Therefore, it is more important not to register certain influences, not to look for similarities in specific details, but to analyze the environment, conditions, circumstances that ensured the fusion of creative impulses.

It is important to point out the term «hidden existence», which is used in folklore studies to denote some of the features of the existence of works. It seems that the acceptance or rejection of certain forms and ornaments by the artisans of chests also depended on their «hidden existence» in the local tradition. Only forms of products and ornamental motifs similar to those coming from outside took root. The researcher of Russian folklore Yu. Smirnov pointed out: «… what is borrowed is what corresponds either – less often – to the old, dying ones, or – more often – to the new, emerging, norms of the borrowing folk tradition. Consequently, when stating a borrowing, one should always look for local, actually ethnic, behind it or next to it, whether it is only traces, pieces and fragments of the forgotten»⁷¹. These words are true not only in relation to folklore, but also to chest production.

Published: Русские сундуки-подголовники: художественный стиль и культурно-исторический контекст // Вестник культуры и искусств. – 2020. – №2 (62). – С. 71—77.

The chest images in painting

From the dawn of time, the chest has been used to store valuables, documents, and food supplies. It played a special role in the wedding ceremony. It is not surprising that from an early time the chest was reflected in the works of fine arts.

In the scientific literature, this topic has not received sufficient coverage, although in some works there are references to the image of certain chests and caskets in paintings, book miniatures, frescoes, icon painting⁷². Researchers most often only state the fact of the image of certain chest products. Perhaps the most thorough research in this area belongs to the german researcher Paul Schubring⁷³. His work, however, deals only with italian cassones (wedding chests).

This paper attempts to summarize information on this topic, trace the features of the image of chest products in the works of easel and monumental painting, book graphics.

It should be emphasized that the author involved only the most demonstrative works of art. The number of images of chests and caskets is truly limitless, it is impossible to cover everything in one review.

I

As early as in the painting of antique vases one can see chests and caskets with flat or sloping lids, each of which consists of four pillars and walls made of several planks. Sometimes the products are depicted in such detail that not only the design differs, but also the colors and ornamental motifs. These items were used in religious ceremonies and as home furniture. As an example antique vases from the Hermitage collection can be indicated⁷⁴. Based on these drawings, we can conclude that the oldest design used to create furniture in ancient Egypt has retained its popularity.

Images of chests and caskets in Italian Renaissance art are most common. Some of them are made very carefully, so they are used as historical sources. A fresco by Giotto from the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua (1304—1306; in the scene of the Annunciation to St. Anne) shows a large red chest with a flat lid and straight walls. It is upholstered with thin iron strips, on the front side there is a figured metal plate protecting the lock. According to Italian tradition, the chest is in the bedroom. In this case, we can name two works by the Sienese artist Sano di Pietro. The first is The Nativity of the Virgin (1448—1452), in which cassone chests stand along the beds⁷⁵. The front side of each of them is decorated with a painted floral ornament against a gold background, located in three rectangular figures. Since the lids on the chests are flat, the latter are used as benches. In another work by Sano di Pietro, The Birth and Naming of John the Baptist (1450—60)⁷⁶ cassons are also located along the beds. Unlike the chests depicted on the previous canvas, they are devoid of painting. Their only decoration is profiled panels. Antonello da Messina on the canvas «Saint Jerome at work» (around1475)⁷⁷ depicted a small chest with a flat lid and carved legs, reminiscent of Stollenrtuhe (one of the common types of chests). It is locatecd to the right of the saint. The item is devoid of any decorations, it is simple and elegant. And in the famous painting by Titian «Venus of Urbino» (1538)⁷⁸ two chests are shown in the background. They have rounded walls and are decorate perhaps with intarsia. The ornament consists of whimsically twisting vegetative scrolls and anthropomorphic images. Even on the front panels of the chests themselves, wedding cassones were depicted, as, for example, on a Florentine work of the 15th century from the collection of the State Hermitage⁷⁹. Two servants on a donkey carry richly decorated chests with sloping lids. Their sizes do not correspond to the real ones. Examples of the image of Italian chests on frescoes, canvases and panels can be listed almost endlessly. Thus, based on the images examined, it can be concluded that chest production has developed significantly: in the 15th century in Italy, various designs and techniques for decorating products were used.

Painters of other countries also paid attention to chest items. On the triptych of Pieter Aartsen «Adoration of the Magi» (1560)⁸⁰ a large chest is depicted in some detail. It has a sloping lid reinforced with thin wooden strips from the inside; walls are straight, upholstered with iron strips, on the sides there are handles and terer are no legs. The chest may have been upholstered with leather having an ornament made in the embossing technique. And on the canvas of Hieronymus Bosch «Death of a Merchant» (1485—1490)⁸¹ even more detailed than the thing discussed above, a chest is depicted, reproducing the design of tuugkist («sarcophagus») chests. In the grooves of the four «pillars» the boards are strengthened (they also form the legs) that make up the walls. The lid is flat, it was raised and lowered with the help of wooden hinges. The front side of the chest (lower part) is decorated with geometric motifs performed in carving technique. Attention is drawn to the powerful iron plate that protects the key hole. It consists of two parts of different shapes (triangular and round), superimposed on each other. A long iron hinge is attached to the lid. The title is on the left. An interesting detail shows how the lid was held up: a dagger was used. In German painting, images of chest products are no less common. They can be seen, for example, on Stefan Lochner’s Altar of the Cologne City Cartridge (after 1426), on his own painting Madonna in the Gazebo (1440), on the left wing of the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grunewald (1506—1515). There is a chest with flat lids and walls, consisting of paneled panels; a chest with a flat lid, the walls of which are connected «in a dovetail»; richly decorated casket with a gable lid. The desire of German painters for a reliable depiction of objects (which is called by researchers as one of the features of German Renaissance painting⁸²) made it possible to consider their canvases as a source of the history of everyday life.

The collection of the Cleveland Museum of Art contains a portrait of Sir Anthony Mildmay (around 1590—1593) by the English painter Nicholas Hilliard (around 1547—1619)⁸³. To the right of the person being portrayed there is a large black chest with a sloping lid, upholstered with iron strips arranged as a checked one. On the front side there are three figured iron hinges. Among the furnishings of the tent of an English aristocrat, the chest occupies one of the main places.

By the 18th—19th centuries, when chests gradually fell into disuse in the higher social strata, their appearance changed. Like the other changes mentioned above, this was also reflected in painting. An idea of such chests can be given by numerous canvases and drawings by the famous Norwegian artist Adolf Tidemand (1814—1876), stored in the National Museum of Art, architecture and design (Oslo). For example, on the «The old pantry in Vik» (1867)⁸⁴ four large peasant chests are depicted. They are decorated with paintings (this is the traditional Norwegian «rosemåling») and iron figured strips. They have sloping lids and high carved plinths. Similar products are kept in many museums in Scandinavia.

If we are talking about the countries of Eastern Europe, then it is necessary to mention the altar image «The adoration of the Magi» (1514) from the Peter and Paul Church of the village of Drysviaty, Braslav district, Vitebsk region⁸⁵. One of the characters is holding a wooden casket upholstered with figured iron strips. The casket is depicted in great detail, the master obviously had some kind of sample before his eyes. The walls of the product are decorated with carved ornaments, consisting of floral scrolls and plot scenes. The gable cover is devoid of decorations. This image can serve as reliable evidence of the early acquaintance of Belarusian craftsmen with European products.

Another type of art, where images of chests and caskets are found, was engraving. Especially often German, Dutch and French artists and engravers turned to this plot. On the engraving of Albrecht Dürer «Saint Jerome» (1511)⁸⁶ among the many furnishings of the cell there is a small chest with a flat lid and a figured metal mask. It is placed on a high carved plinth. On the side walls there are figured cast handles. And on the engraving «A young couple and an old woman with a piggy bank» (1589 – 1607)⁸⁷ Jan Sanredam depicts a box with a trapezoidal lid in which coins are stored. The box is upholstered with iron strips and possibly cloth. On the front side there is a metal mask. During the period when the engraving was created, many similar caskets were made in the Netherlands, so the artist probably had a sample in front of him. The engraving of Abraham Boss «The Footman Following the Decree of 1633»⁸⁸ depicts a chest in which a servant puts his master’s suits. This is a large chest with a sloping lid, upholstered with fabric. From the inside and along the edges it is reinforced with iron strips. The front wall is narrowed down. On the sides there are molded handles of a simple shape.

Images of chests were found not only in painting and engraving, but also in miniature. On one of the sheets of the book «Très belles Heures» (c. 1400)⁸⁹, previously owned by the younger brother of Charles V, Duke de Berry, there is a scene of the birth of John the Baptist and below it is «The Baptism of Christ». In the first scene the main role is played by the landscape, but the second one represents the Flemish interior. Among the wooden furniture and metal utensils, a «sarcophagus» chest is depicted. This is one of the most ancient types of chests. It is interesting to note that it completely repeats the image of the above-mentioned work by Hieronymus Bosch (except that it has two headings, and not one, like a merchant’s chest). Storing various household items it stands opposite the bed of the woman in labor. Considering that after the creation of this miniature, almost a century passed before the appearance of Bosch’s painting, it must be stated that the «sarcophagus» type of chests is not only one of the most ancient, but also one of the most stable types of chest products. Probably, this was facilitated by the simplicity of design and the harmony of proportions, found by the masters quite early⁹⁰.

On one of the sheets of the manuscript collection (c. 1457—1530), stored in the British Library⁹¹, three chests are shown. Red one has straight walls and a sloping lid, upholstered with strips of iron; on the front wall there is a figured metal plate. The other represents a typical travel «bag». Such things will later be done in many European countries and in Russia. The third type is the so-called «chest – teremok». It is painted red and upholstered with iron strips. There are no decorations on the examined items. The dimensions of the products are unlikely to correspond to the real ones. The miniature testifies not only to the wide distribution of chest products in England of that period, but also to their diversity.

We must also mention a page from a book (c. 1480)⁹², owned by Mary of Burgundy, on which the artist Nicholas Spiering depicts one of the scenes of the Passion of Christ. Below it there are images of various objects, among which you can see a small turquoise box. It has a high sloping lid and straight walls (no legs). The surfaces of the box are most likely upholstered with velvet, placed under thin iron strips, the ends of which resemble the shape of lilies. On the front wall there is a rectangular face made of brass (internal lock). The hinge is located on the lid. The inside of the box is either painted or also upholstered with velvet (red). Since the lid is open, you can see what was stored in the box. These are women’s items, a scarf and jewelry. Despite the fact that this miniature cannot be used to judge the design of the casket, its shape and decoration can be seen quite clearly.

II

In Russia, as in European countries, chest products became widespread very early. One of the first mentions is found in «Izbornik of Svyatoslav» (1076)⁹³. In Novgorod birch-bark documents of the 12th century, there are references to chests and boxes.⁹⁴. Images of large chests that are used as a bench are found in miniatures of the Radziwill Chronicle (end of the 15th century). There you can also see a chest with a sloping lid and a chest with a gable roof⁹⁵. Russian icon painting did not avoid images of chests. On the icon «Christ the Almighty on the throne, in 28 scenes» by Semyon Spiridonov Kholmogorets⁹⁶, originating from Yaroslavl and dating from about 1682, a large chest is depicted. It has straight walls and a sloping lid, upholstered with tin sheets with a picturesque ornament consisting of plant motifs. The front side and the cover are divided into two equal parts, side walls are divided into four parts. This image indicates that already in the 17th century there were chests of the type that would become widespread in Russia much later.

In numerous icons depicting St. Panteleimon, a chest is depicted, which the healer holds in his hands. It is necessary to point out not this peculiarity of iconography, but the variety of caskets. They can be depicted large and small, with a flat lid and gable, painted and carved, with or without legs. This testifies to the wide prevalence of this type of chest products.

Several chest centers developed in Russia over time, such as Kholmogory and Veliky Ustyug, the Middle Urals, the city of Makaryev, Nizhny Novgorod province. The works of local masters were popular among Russian painters.

The works of the masters from Kholmogor and Veliky Ustyug were most vividly reflected on the historical canvases of Konstantin Makovsky «Boyar wedding feast in the 17th century» (1883)⁹⁷, «Minin on the square of Nizhny Novgorod…» (1890s)⁹⁸. The artist carefully depicted chests, coffers and caskets. These are typical products of northern craftsmen, upholstered with wrought iron with colored linings. Makovsky, as a rule, depicted items historically authentically. But on the canvas «Minin on Nizhny Novgorod Square…» one can see a large red chest made in the second half of the 19th century (most likely in the Murom district). It was the time of the dominance of manufactories. However, this anachronism does not interfere with the perception of the canvas.

Another major center of Russian chest production was the factory settlements of the Middle Urals. It is known that the Ural chest is depicted on the canvas of the artist N.D. Dmitriev-Orenburgskij «The fire in the village», dating from 1879⁹⁹. It is among other household items rescued by the peasants from the fire. The artist scrupulously drew the details of the shape and decor of the chest. It is rectangular, with a slightly sloping lid, upholstered with slotted metal plates and floral ornaments made using the embossing technique. The front wall is divided into three fields: two wide and one narrow. Each contains «mirrors», i.e. pieces of polished iron. The decoration of the sides repeats the decor of the front in an abbreviated form. In general, the depicted chest is a typical work of the Ural masters of the second half of the 19th century.

There is evidence that influenced by the Ural products brought to the local fair in the 18th century, residents of the city of Makaryeva (Nizhny Novgorod province) began to make chests¹⁰⁰. The popularity of the Makaryev chests is evidenced by the works of Boris Kustodiev, for example, the sketch «The chest man» (1918), the painting of the same name (1920) and the painting «The merchant» (1923), which depicts numerous chests placed in the form of a «mountain»¹⁰¹. If in the sketch the chests are presented in a generalized way (although one can catch the main motifs and compositions of the painting), then in the paintings the artist carefully drew every detail of their external appearance. Chests serveв as chairs and tables. Large bouquets of flowers are depicted on their front walls, some are decorated with «frozen» tin and strips with embossed ornament.