Kitabı oku: «Moses and Aaron», sayfa 14

CHAP. IX.
Punishments borrowed from other Nations

The punishments borrowed from other Nations are principally six: 1. Crux, The death on the Cross. 2. Serrâ dissectio, the cutting one asunder with a saw. 3. Damnatio ad bestias, The committing one to fight for his life with wild beasts. 4. τροχὸς, the wheel. 5. καταποντισμὸς, Drowning one in the sea. 6. τυμπανισμὸς, Beating one to death with cudgels. The first and the third were meerly Roman punishments; the second was likewise used by the Romans, but whether originally taken from them is doubtful: the fourth and the last were meerly Greek punishments; the fifth was for the substance in use among Hebrews, Greeks and Romans, but in the manner of drowning them, they differed. It will be needful to speak somewhat of all these.

1. Crux. This word is sometimes applied to any tree or stake on which a man is tortured to death, but most properly it is applied to a frame of wood consisting of two pieces of timber compacted cross-wise. The first is termed Crux simplex, the last Crux compacta. This latter is threefold. 1. Decussata. 2. Commissa. 3. Immissa.

Crux decussata. This was made of two equal pieces of timber obliquely crossing one the other in the middle, after the manner of the Roman X, and thence it is called decussata.⁵⁹⁵ Decussare, est per medium secare. Veluti si duæ regulæ concurrant ad speciem literæ X, quæ figura est crucis. This kind of cross is by the common people termed Crux Andræana, Saint Andrews-cross, because on such an one he is reported to have been crucified.

Crux commissa. This was, when a piece of timber erected, was joyned in the middle to a traverse, of over-thwart top; somewhat shorter than the piece erect, in manner of a Roman T. This is called Crux Antoniana, S. Anthony his Cross, because he is often painted with such a Cross.

Crux immissa. This was when a short traverse somewhat obliquely crossed the stake erect, not quite in the middle, as Crux decussata, nor quite on the top as Crux commissa, but near the top, in this manner †. This is thought⁵⁹⁶ to have been Crux Christi, the Cross on which our Saviour Christ suffered.

The Ceremonies used by the Romans towards those whom they crucified were these: First, they scourged them, and sometimes tyed them to a Piller in time of scourging. Artemidorus⁵⁹⁷ is clear in this, Προσδεθεὶς κίονι, πολλὰς ἔλαβε πληγὰς, that is, being tyed to the Piller, he received many stripes. Plautus⁵⁹⁸ is thought to have alluded to the same.

 
– Abducite hunc
Intro, atque adstringite ad columnam fortiter.
 

The ancient Fathers⁵⁹⁹ report that our Saviour was whipt thus ad columnam: but the Scripture is silent, both touching the place and manner of this whipping, only that he was whipt is testified. He scourged Jesus, and delivered him to be crucified, Mat. 27. 26.

Secondly, They caused them to bear their own Cross,⁶⁰⁰ Malefici cùm ad supplicium educuntur, quisq; suum effert crucem. Thus Christ bore his own Cross, John 19. 17. To this there is allusion, He that taketh not his Cross, and followeth after me, he is not worthy of me, Mat. 10. 38.

Thirdly,⁶⁰¹ That the equity of the proceeding might clearly appear, the cause of the punishment was written in a table, and so carried before the condemned person; or else it was proclamed by a publick Cryer. This cause was termed by the Romans commonly Titulus, by some⁶⁰² it is called Elegium. Thus Pilate wrote in Hebrew, Greek, and Latine, Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews.

Fourthly,⁶⁰³ They pluckt off their cloaths from such as were to be crucified. Thus Christ suffered naked.

Serra dissectio, A sawing one in sunder. They sawed them from the head downward. The Romans⁶⁰⁴ they used this kind of punishment, so likewise did the Hebrews. Thus Manasses is thought to have punisht the Prophet Isaiah, and the Apostle to have alluded unto it, They were sawn a-sunder, Heb. 11. 37.

Damnatio ad bestias. Those who were condemned to wild beasts, are properly termed Bestiarii. Whether S. Paul did, according to the letter, fight with beasts at Ephesus, 1 Cor. 15. 32. is much controversed. Some⁶⁰⁵ understand by Beasts, Demetrius, and others that opposed him at Ephesus, others⁶⁰⁶ more probably understand the word literally. And this kind of punishment was commonly exercised against Christians in the Primitive Church, insomuch that the Heathens imputing the cause of all publick calamities unto the Christians, would call out,⁶⁰⁷ Christianos ad Leones! Let the Christians be haled to Lyons: yea, the litteral interpretation of the words, is a stronger argument that Saint Paul believed the Resurrection (which is the scope of the text) than to understand the words of a metaphorical fight, against the enemies of his doctrine.

Τροχὸς, The Wheel: A wise King bringeth the wheel over the wicked, Prov. 20. 26. I take the words to imply no more but this, that as the wheel turneth round, so by the wisdom of a King the mischief intended by wicked men, is brought upon their own head. That hereby should be understood, the grinding of wicked men under a cart-wheel, as the husband brake some sort of grain under the wheel, is the meer conceipt of Expositors on this place; for no Records make mention of any such punishment in use among the Jews. Among the Greeks there was a punishment went under this name:⁶⁰⁸ it was called τροχὸς, A Wheel, not because a wheel was brought over the wicked, but because they bound fast the offender to the spokes of a wheel, and there scourged him, to inforce a confession.

Καταποντισμὸς, Drowning in the Sea. This was in use among many Nations, but the manner differed. The Romans⁶⁰⁹ they sewed up a Parricide into a leather budget, sewing up together with him into the same budget, a Serpent, a Cock, and an Ape, and so cast them all into the Sea. The Grecians⁶¹⁰ when they judged any to this kind of punishment, they wrapt him up in lead. The Hebrews tyed a milstone about his neck. Thus, in respect of the manner those are to be understood, who say,⁶¹¹ this kind of punishment was peculiar to the Jews.

Τυμπανισμὸς. It is rendred by the general name of torturing, Heb. 11. 35. 2 Mac. 6. 19. But the word signifieth a special kind of torturing, by beating one with cudgels unto death. It hath its denomination from τύμπανον, which signifieth a Drum usually: and hence some⁶¹² have parallel’d this torture with that among the Romans termed Equuleus; as if the person thus tortured, were rackt, and stretched out in manner of a drum head: but it signifieth also a drum stick, and thence⁶¹³ cometh the punishment to be termed Tympanismus, that is, a Tabring, or beating one to death with cudgels, as if it were with drum-sticks. This is evident by Eleazar; he came willingly, ἐπὶ τὸ τύμπανον, to this kind of torment, 2 Macab. 6. 19. and in the thirtieth verse, where he gave up the Ghost, there is mention of his strokes, not of his racking or stretching.

Junius ⁶¹⁴ reckoneth another kind of punishment termed by the Hebrews, ‎‏צינק‏‎ Tsinok, which he would have to be a compound word: doubtless his meaning is that it would be compounded of ‎‏צי‏‎ Tsi, Navis, a ship, or boat, and ‎‏ינק‏‎ Janack, Sugere, to suck: for he saith that thereby is meant a certain punishment, termed Navicula sugentis which Plutarch⁶¹⁵ describeth in this manner; That the offender should be inclosed between two boates, as in a prison, or, as his phrase is (quasi in vagina) as in a sheath; and, to preserve life in him, milk and honey tempered together was forcibly put into his mouth, whether he would or no. And hence, from this sucking in of milk and honey, this punishment hath been termed Navicula sugentis. But the Hebrews⁶¹⁶ say, that Tsinock was nothing else but manacles, or cords, wherewith prisoners hands were tyed. I leave it indifferent to the Reader to follow which interpretation he please.

THE SIXTH BOOK
OF MISCELLANEOUS RITES

CHAP. I.
Of Circumcision

Their Sacraments were two. First, the Passover of which there hath been a set Chapter. Secondly, Circumcision, of which now.

Circumcision, was a cutting off the foreskin, as a sign and seal of Gods Covenant made with the People of the Jews. It is called a sign by God in its first institution, Gen. 17. and a seal by the Apostle, Rom. 4. 11. Yea, it is called a sign and a seal, by a Doctor of the Jews,⁶¹⁷ more ancient than their Talmud.

It was used (though not as a Sacrament) by many other Nations:⁶¹⁸ by the inhabitants of Colchis, the Æthiopians, the Trogloditæ, and the Egyptians.

In a figurative sense, alluding unto this Sacramental Rite, we read of three other sorts of Circumcision in the Scripture; so that in all there are four mentioned. 1. This of the flesh. 2. Another of the heart. 3. A third of the lips. 4. And a fourth of the ears. We are to consider it in its proper acception, and here to observe: First, the time when it was administred. Secondly, the manner how. Thirdly, the penalty in case it was omitted.

The time was the eighth day; yea, the eighth day was so precisely observed, that if it fell on the Sabbath, yet they circumcised the Child; whence rose that saying among them, Circumcisio pellit Sabbatum Circumcision driveth away the Sabbath; or, the Sabbath giveth place to Circumcision. And with this accordeth that of our Saviour, Ye on the Sabbath day circumcise a man, John 7. 22. The Jews superstitiously conceiting that each creatures perfection depended upon the sanctification of one Sabbath day at least, say that God did therefore enjoyn the eighth day, that one Sabbath might first pass over each male, before he should be partaker of this Sacrament. But more probably we may say, that the reasons why God would not suffer them to anticipate the eighth day, were first to shew, that God in the matter of Salvation, neither was, nor is simply tyed to Sacraments; for then there had been no less cruelty in forbidding Circumcision until the eighth day, than there was love in permitting it upon the eighth. Secondly, because in this time of the Mosaical Pedagogie, there was a kind of legal uncleanness, in which the creatures were thought to be, as remaining in their blood, for the first seven daies after their birth, Levit. 22. 27. It. 12. 2, 3. Notwithstanding, God thought it not convenient to defer it longer than eight daies, for the comfort of the Parents, which they received by a mature and seasonable initiation of their children.

The manner how Circumcision was administred, I find thus recorded: Some of those that were present held a vessel full of dust,⁶¹⁹ into which they did cast the foreskin being cut off. Again, they prepared in the room, a certain void chair for Elias;⁶²⁰ which was done, partly in honour of him, for which respect also, as often as they fell on any difficult place in Scripture they would say⁶²¹ Veniet Elias, & omnia enodabit; We know that Elias will come, and he will tell us all things: But chiefly it was done, because they thought Elias to be present there in spirit, whose bodily coming they did, and do daily expect. These ceremonies are meerly Jewish, practised by the latter Jews, but utterly unknown in our Saviour Christ his time, and, as it appeareth by the Samaritan woman her speech, that proverbial saying applyed now to Elias, was of old applyed to Christ, John 4. 25. Thirdly, he which supplyed the place of the Witness, or as we phrase it, of the Godfather,⁶²² held the Child in his arms whiles it was Circumcised: this Godfather they called Baal Berith, and Sandack; that is, the Master of the Covenant. Uriah the Priest, and Zachariah the son of Jeberechia, are thought⁶²³ to have been Godfathers at the Circumcision of Maher-shalal-hash-baz, Esay. 8. 2. and from them the custome of having Godfathers in Baptisme, to have taken its original. Fourthly, the Parents named the Child, and in Zacharies time, it seemeth that in the naming of the Infant, they had respect to some name of his Ancestors. They said unto her, there is none of thy kindred that is named with this name, Luk. 1. 61. Other Nations had their set daies also after the birth, for the naming of their Children. The Romans⁶²⁴ gave names to their male-children on the ninth day, to the female on the eighth. The Athenians⁶²⁵ gave names on the tenth. Others⁶²⁶ on the seventh. These daies Tertullian⁶²⁷ called Nominalia. The Grecians besides the tenth day on which they named the Child, they observed also the fifth,⁶²⁸ on which day the Midwives took the Child, and ran about a fire made for that purpose, using that Ceremony as a purification of themselves and the Child: on this day the Neighbours also sent in gifts, or small tokens, Munera natalitia;⁶²⁹ from which custom that amongst Christians, of the Godfathers sending gifts to the baptized Infant, is thought to have flown. But to return again to the Rites of the Jews. After the Child had been circumcised, the Father said:⁶³⁰ Blessed be our Lord God, who hath sanctified us with his precepts, and hath commanded us, that we should cause this child to enter into the Covenant of Abraham. After this, the whole Church or company present replyed in this manner,⁶³¹ As thou hast made him to enter into the Covenant, so make him also to enter into the Law, into Matrimony, and into good works.

The penalty for the omission of Circumcision running in this form; That soul shall be cut off from his people, Gen. 17. 14. I understand the penalty to be pronounced against such an omission; which proceeded either from contempt or wilful neglect. In this case the question is, what is meant by this phrase, His soul shall be cut off from the people. Secondly, who ought thus to be punisht? whether the child, or the parents, and such who supply the place of parents? For the first, besides Gods secret action in punishing such Delinquents, methinks there is a rule of direction for the Church, how to proceed against such in her Discipline: If any understand here, by cutting off such a mans soul from his people, the sentence of excommunication, or casting him out of the Synagogue, I shall not oppose it; though I rather incline to those, who understand hereby a bodily death inflicted upon such an offender, in which sense the phrase is taken, Exod. 31. 14. Whosoever doth any work on the Sabbath, that soul shall be cut off from among his people. And it is very remarkable, that when Moses his child was uncircumcised, the Lord sought to kill Moses: which as it intimated the punishment of this fault to be a bodily death so it clearly evinceth, that not the child till he cometh to years of discretion, but the parents were liable to punishment. The opinion of the Rabbines concerning this latter point is thus delivered:⁶³² If the Father circumcise him not, then the Judges are commanded to circumcise him: and if it be unknown to the Judges, and they circumcise him not, when he is waxen great, he is bound to circumcise himself, and every day that passeth over him, after he is waxen great, and, he circumciseth not himself, lo he breaketh the Commandment.

Here it may be demanded, how it is possible for a man, after once he hath been marked with the sign of Circumcision, to blot out that character and become uncircumcised? for thus some Jews, for fear of Antiochus, made themselves uncircumcised, 1 Mac. 1. 16. Others for shame, after they were gained to the knowledge of Christ, and to entertainment of the Christian faith, uncircumcised themselves, 1 Cor. 7. 18. The answer is,⁶³³ that this was done by drawing up the foreskin with a Chirurgion his instrument; and unto this the Apostle in the fore quoted place alludeth, μὴ ἐπισπάσθω, Ne attrahat præputium. This wicked invention is ascribed unto Esau, as the first Author and practiser thereof.

CHAP. II.
Of their first fruits and their firstlings, or first-born

The use and end of their first-fruits, was that the after-fruits might be consecrated in them. To this purpose they were enjoyned to offer the first fruits of their trees, which served for food, Levit. 19. 23, 24. In which this order was observed; the three first years after the tree had been planted, the fruits were counted uncircumcised and unclean: it was unlawful to eat them, sell them, or make any benefit of them: on the fourth year, they were accounted holy, that is, either they were given to the Priests,⁶³⁴ Num. 18. 12, 13. or the owners did eat them before the Lord at Jerusalem, as they did their second tithe: and this latter is the common opinion of the Hebrews.⁶³⁵ After the fourth year, they returned to the use of the owner: we may call these πρωτογεννήματα, simply the first-fruits.

Secondly, they were enjoyned to pay yearly the first-fruits of every years increase, and these we may call, ἀπαρχὰς, and of them there were many sorts. First, first-fruits in the sheaf, Lev. 23. 10. Secondly, first-fruits in two wave-loaves, Levit. 23. 17. These two bounded their harvest, that in the sheaf was offered in the beginning of harvest, upon the fifteenth of Nisan, the other of the loavs at the end, upon their Penticost: and Levit. 23. they are both called ‎‏תנופות‏‎ Thenuphoth, that is, shake-offerings. Thirdly, there was a first of the dough. Num. 15. 20. namely,⁶³⁶ a four and twentieth part thereof, given unto the Priests: which kind of offering was observed, even when they were returned out of Babylon, Nehem. 10. 37. Unto this St. Paul hath reference, Rom. 11. 16. If the first fruits be holy, the lump is holy. Fourthly, they were to pay unto the Priests the first-fruits of the threshing floor, Numb. 15. 20. These two last are called ‎‏תרומות‏‎ Therumoth, that is, heave offerings: this the heave-offering of the threshing floor; the other the heave-offering of the dough, Numb. 15. 20. Under the name of first-fruits, commonly Authors treat of no others but this last, and wholly omit all the former sorts. Before we proceed to the explaining of the last, note with me the difference of these two words, Thenuphoth, and Therumoth: both signifie shake-offerings, heave-offerings, or wave offerings, but with this difference;⁶³⁷ the Therumoth was by a waving of elevation, lifting the oblation upward and downward, to signifie, that God was Lord both of Heaven and Earth. The Thenuphoth was by a waving of agitation, waving it to and fro, from the right hand to the left, from the East to the West, from the North to the South: by which kind of agitation, they acknowledged God to be Lord of the whole world. Now, that we may know what these first-fruits of the threshing floor were, the Rabbies, and the others following them, distinguish them into two sorts: the first of these, was first-fruits of seven things only: 1 Wheat. 2 Barley. 3 Grapes. 4 Figs. 5 Pomgranates. 6 Olives. 7 Dates. For all which the Promised Land is commended, Deut. 8. 8. These the Talmudists⁶³⁸ term ‎‏בכורים‏‎ Biccurim; and when they treat of first-fruites they treat of them under this name, and understand by the name of Biccurim no other. These, they say, are the first fruits, which the people are so often in the Law commanded to bring up unto the Sanctuary, at the Feast of Pentecost, which was the end and closure of their harvest, as was signified both by this oblation, and likewise by that of the two wave-loaves, Lev. 23. 17.

The second was paid of Corn, Wine, Oyl, and the Fleece, Deut. 18. 4. Numb. 18. 12. yea, of all things else that the earth brought forth of mans food. Thus their Doctors are to be understood, where they say,⁶³⁹ Quicquid eduliorum ex terra incrementum capit, obnoxium est primitiis, Therumæ, & decimis. This they call, ‎‏תרומה‏‎ Theruma, an heave-offering: the Greek renders it, ἀφωρίσμος, A separation, because this was a consecration, or setting apart of the Lords portion. In allusion unto this, I take S. Paul to have termed himself ἀφωρισμένον ἐς ἐυαγγέλιον, separated unto the Gospel, Rom. 1. 1. ἀφοριεῖ Ἀαρὼν, Aaron shall separate the Levites, so the Greek renders it; but the Original is, Aaron shall wave the Levites, Numb. 8. 11. Again, ἀφορίσατε Separate me Barnabas and Saul, Acts 13. 2. Drusius delivereth another reason, as hath been said in the Chapter of the Pharisees. But to proceed: the Hebrews called this second payment, not only Theruma, simple, but sometimes Theruma gedola,⁶⁴⁰ the great heave offering, in comparison of that Tithe which the Levites payed unto the Priests: for that was termed Theruma magnasher, the heave offering of the Tithe, Numb. 18. 26. which though it were one of ten, in respect of that portion which the Levites received; yet it was but one of an hundered, in respect of the Husbandmans stock, who payed the Levites: and thus it was a great deal less than the great heave offering, as will presently appear. This (the Hebrews say) the owners were not bound to bring up to Jerusalem.

The law prescribed no set quantity to be paid, either in the Biccurim or in the Theruma; but, by tradition, they were taught to pay at least the sixtieth part in both, even in those seven things, also paid under the name of Biccurim, or first fruits, as well as in their heave-offering termed Theruma, or Theruma gedola.

Thus the Talmudists do distinguish the Biccurim from the Theruma gedola: but in my opinion the Biccurim may be contained under Theruma gedola; and in truth, both of them are nothing else but the heave-offering of the floor, formerly mentioned out of Num. 15. 20. My reasons are these: 1. Scripture giveth no such leave to keep any part of their first-fruits at home; if that could be proved, the distinction were warrantable. 2. Scripture doth not limit first fruits unto those seven kinds, which alone go under the name of Biccurim. 3. Themselves confound both members; for their Biccurim, they say, they paid, 1. Wheat. 2. Barley. In their Theruma, they say, they paid Corn; as if under Corn; Wheat and Barley were not contained. Some may say, they paid their Biccurim in the Ear, while the harvest was yet standing and their Theruma in Wheat and Barley ready threshed and winnowed. My reasons why it cannot be so, are these: 1. Because then they should pay twice a sixtieth part in their corn. 2. Because the corn offered in the sheaf was but a little quantity, and it was offered not at their Pentecost when their harvest ended, but at their Passover when their harvest began, Levit. 23. 10. Whereas their Biccurim, or first fruits, were alwayes offered at their Pentecost.

But omitting further proofs, I proceed to shew the ground, why in this heave-offering of the floor, at least a sixtieth part was prescribed: it is grounded upon that of the Prophet Ezek. This is the oblation that ye shall offer, the sixth part of an Ephah out of an Homer, Ezek. 45. 13. that is, the sixtieth part of the whole, because an Homer containeth ten Ephahs. Hence they took that distinction of these offerings. Some⁶⁴¹ they say, gave the fortieth part of their encrease: this, because it was the greatest quantity given in this kind of oblations, they termed Theruma oculi boni,⁶⁴² The oblation of a fair eye: others (though they were not so liberal as the former, yet they might not be reputed niggardly) gave a fiftieth part, and this they termed Theruma mediana,⁶⁴³ The oblation of a middle eye: others, whom they reputed sordid, gave just a sixtieth part, less then which they could not give, this they termed Theruma oculi mali,⁶⁴⁴ The oblation of an evill eye; so that the payment of these was bounded by the tradition of the Elders, between the sixtieth and the fortieth part: But the Pharisees⁶⁴⁵ that they might be holy above others, made their bounds the fiftieth and the thirtieth part; so that he was reputed sordid with them that paid the fiftieth part; and none liberal except he paid the thirtieth. The manner how these first-fruites termed Biccurim were paid, is at large set down, Deut. 26. But in time of the Prophets other Ceremonies seem to have been received, of which the Hebrew Docters say thus:⁶⁴⁶ When they carried up their first-fruits, all the Cities that were in a county gathered together to the chief City of the county to the end that they might not go up alone: for it is said, In the multitude of people is the Kings honour, Prov. 14. 28. And they came and lodged all night in the streets of the City, and went not into houses, for fear of pollution: and in the morning the Governor said, Arise, and let us go up to Sion, the City of the Lord our God. And before them went a Bull which had his horns covered with Gold, and an Olive Garland on his head, to signifie the first fruits of the seven kinds of fruits. There was likewise a pipe struck up before them, untill they came near to Jerusalem and all the way as they went, they sung, I rejoyced in them that said unto me, we will go into the house of the Lord, &c. Psal. 122. Unto this, and other like manner of solemn Assemblies the Prophet hath reference, saying, Ye shall have a song as in a night when a holy solemnity is kept, and gladness of heart, as when one goeth with a pipe to come unto the mountain of the Lord, Esay. 30. 29.

The firstlings, or first-born of man and beast, the Lord challenged as his own, Exod. 13. The ground of this Law was, because God smote all the first-born in Egypt from man to beast, but spared the Israelites; for a perpetual memory of which benefit, he commanded them to sanctifie all their first-born males unto him. Now the first born men, and unclean beasts, were redeemed for five silver shekels of the sanctuary, paid unto the Priests for each of them, Numb. 18. 15, 16. Unto this S. Peter alludeth saying, We are not redeemed with corruptible things, as silver and gold, 1 Pet. 1. 18. The firstlings of a clean beasts ought to be sacrificed, their blood to be sprinkled on the Altar, their fat to be burnt for a burnt-offering, and their flesh to return to the Priests.

Observe how God would be honoured by the firstlings of men and cattel; by the first-fruits of trees, and of the earth, in the sheaf, in the threshing-floor, in the dough, in the loavs: All which teach us to consecrate the first and prime of our years unto the Lord.