Kitabı oku: «The Energy System of Matter: A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena», sayfa 4

16. Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence

The attractive influence of gravitation appears as an incepting agency in terrestrial as well as in celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the agencies which incept energy transformations on the earth, gravitation, in one form or another, is the most universal and the most important. Gravitation being a property of all matter, no mundane body, animate or inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading influence, and every movement of energised matter within the field of that influence leads inevitably to energy transformation.

Let us take a concrete illustration. A block of solid material is supported on a horizontal table. By means of a cord attached, energy is applied to the block from an external source, so that it slides over the surface of the table. As a result of this motion and the associated frictional process, heat energy will make its appearance at the sliding surfaces of contact. This heat energy is obviously obtained by the transformation of that energy originally applied to the block from the external source. What is the incepting influence in this process of transformation? The incepting influence is clearly the gravitative attraction of the earth operating between the moving block and the table. The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent in extent or degree on the pressure between the surfaces in contact. This pressure is, of course, due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting the block from above, the heat-transformation process at the surfaces at once terminates. Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of the process. The effect of gravitation in transformation has apparently been eliminated by supporting the block from above and removing the pressure between block and table. It is not really so, however, because the pressure due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the block has in reality only been transferred to this new point of support, and if a movement of the block is carried out it will be found that the heat transformation has been also transferred to that point. But there are also other influences at work in the process. The extent of the heat transformation depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the nature of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, that in the sliding movement the materials in the neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be more or less strained or distorted. This distortion is carried out in the lines of the cohesive forces of the materials, and is the real mechanism of the transformation of the applied work energy into heat. It is obvious that the nature of the surfaces in contact must influence the degree of distortion, that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will depend also on the nature of these materials, and the extent of the heat transformation will be limited by these cohesive properties in precisely the same way as described for other examples (§ 15). The function of gravitation in this transformation is, obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is in no way influenced by the extent of the process. Gravitation is, as it were, only the agency whereby the acting energy is brought into communication with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials.

A little reflection will convey to the reader the vast extent of this influence of gravitation in frictional phenomena, and the important place occupied by such phenomena in the economy of Nature. From the leaf which falls from the tree to the mighty tidal motions of air, earth, and sea due to the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all movements of terrestrial material are alike subject to the influence of terrestrial gravitation, and will give rise to corresponding heat processes. These heat processes are continually in evidence in natural phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike on the earth's surface and in its interior (internal heating). Of the energy operating in them we do not propose to say anything further at this stage, except that it is largely communicated to the atmospheric air masses.

17. The Gravitation Field

The foregoing examples of transformation serve to place before the reader some idea of the general nature and function of an incepting energy influence. But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies it is necessary to revert once more to celestial phenomena. As already indicated in the General Statement, the primary transformations of planetary axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent to, and arising from, the central mass of the system. These energy agencies or effects operate through space, and are entirely passive in nature. They are in no way associated with energy transmission; they are merely the determining causes of the energy-transforming processes which they induce, and do not in the least affect the conservative energy properties of the planetary masses over which their influence is cast. Of the precise number and nature of such influences thus exerted by the primary mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations which are the direct result of their action are so extensive and so varied in character that we would hesitate to place any limit on the number of the influences at work. Some of these influences, however, being associated with the phenomena of everyday experience, are more readily detected in action than others and more accessible to study. It is to these that we naturally turn in order to gain general ideas for application to more obscure cases.

Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which may emanate from the primary mass there are three only which will be dealt with here. Each exerts a profound action on the planetary system, and each may be readily studied and its working verified by the observation of common phenomena. These influences are respectively the gravitation, the thermal, and the luminous fields.

The general nature and properties of the gravitation field have to some extent been already foreshadowed (§§ 4, 6, 16). Other examples will be dealt with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further detail here. The different aspects, however, in which the influence has been presented may be pointed out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as an inherent property of matter (§ 2); secondly, as an attractive influence exerted across space between primary and planet, both absolutely separate bodies (§ 5); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or secondary incepting influence (§ 16). In every case alike we find its function to be of an entirely passive nature. Its most powerful effect on planetary material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions (§ 9). With respect to these movements, it may be pointed out that the planetary material periodically raised from the surface is itself elevated against the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, to a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of planetary material. Each of these resisting influences functions as an incepting agency, and thus the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of energy (§ 4). The source of the energy thus transformed is the axial energy of the planet, and the new forms in which it is manifested are energy of position or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, and heat energy. On the return of the material to its normal position, its energy of position, due to its elevation, will be returned in its original form of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, however, it is to be noted that this process will take place both as the material is elevated and also as it sinks once more to its normal position. The heat transformation thus operates continuously throughout the entire movement. The upraising of the material in the tidal action is brought about entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial energy. The gravitative and cohesive properties of the planetary material make such a transformation process possible. It is in virtue of these properties that energy may be applied to or expended on the material in this way. The tidal action on the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge secondary process in which axial energy is converted into heat. The primary incepting power is clearly gravitation.

Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary influence (§ 16) little requires to be said. The phenomena are so prominent and familiar that the reader may be left to multiply instances for himself.

18. The Thermal Field

The thermal field which is induced by and emanates from the primary mass differs from the gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it is unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, attractive or otherwise. Its action on the rotating planetary mass may be compared to that of the electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (§ 14); the electro-magnet exerts no force on the sphere, but an energy expenditure is, nevertheless, required to rotate the latter through the field of the magnetic influence.

To this thermal field, then, in which the planets rotate, we ascribe all primary planetary heating phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal field appears to be similar to that of other incepting influences. By its agency the energy of axial rotation of planetary material is directly converted into the heat form. As already shown (§ 17), heat energy may be developed in planetary material as a result of the action of other incepting agencies, such as gravitation. These processes are, however, more or less indirect in nature. But the operation due to the thermal field is a direct one. The heat energy is derived from the direct transformation of planetary axial energy of rotation without passing through any intermediate forms. In common parlance, the thermal field is the agency whereby the primary mass heats the planetary system. No idea of transmission, however, is here implied in such phraseology; the heating effect produced on any planetary mass is entirely the result of the transformation of its own energy; the thermal field is purely and simply the incepting influence of the process. Now, in virtue of the configuration of the rotating planetary masses, their material in equatorial regions is much more highly energised than the material in the neighbourhood of the poles, and will, accordingly, move with much greater linear velocity through the thermal field. The heat transformation will vary accordingly. It will be much more pronounced at the equator than at the poles, and a wide difference in temperature will be maintained between the two regions. The thermal field, also, does not necessarily produce the same heating effect on all planetary material alike. Some materials appear to be peculiarly susceptible—others much less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. Investigation shows the opaque substances to be generally most susceptible, and the transparent materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. almost insusceptible, to the heating effect of the sun. The influence of the thermal field can, in fact, operate through the latter materials. A still more striking and important phenomenon may be observed in the varying action of the thermal field on matter in its different forms. It has been already pointed out that, in the course of transformation in the field of an incepting influence, a material may attain a certain energy state in which it is no longer susceptible to that influence. This has been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (§ 14) and a phenomenon of the same general nature is revealed in the celestial transformation. A piece of solid material of low melting-point is brought from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. Due to the more rapid movement across the sun's thermal field, and the consequent increased action of that field, a transformation of the axial energy of rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is heated and finally liquefied. In the liquid state the material is still susceptible to the thermal field, and the transformation process accordingly proceeds until the material finally assumes the gaseous form. At this point, however, it is found that the operation is suspended; the material, in assuming the gaseous state, has now attained a condition (§ 15) in which the thermal field has no further incepting or transforming influence upon it. No transformation of its axial energy into the heat form is now possible by this means; indeed, so far as the direct heating effect of the sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the planetary surface is entirely unaffected. All the evidence of Nature points to the conclusion that all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to the direct thermal influence of the sun. Matter in the gaseous form reaches, as it were, an ultimate or limiting condition in this respect. This fact, that energised material in the gaseous form is not susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great importance in the general economy of Nature. It is, in reality, the means whereby the great primary process of the transformation of the axial energy of the earth into the heat form is limited in extent. As will be explained later, it is the device whereby the planetary energy stability is conserved. It will be apparent, of course, that heat energy may be readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, such as conduction or radiation from purely terrestrial sources. The point which we wish here to emphasise is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial energy on the planetary surface cannot have this axial energy directly transformed into heat through the instrumentality of the thermal field of the primary.

19. The Luminous Field

The planetary bodies are indebted to the primary mass not only for heat phenomena, but also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena are due to a separate and distinct energy influence (or influences) which we term the luminous field.

The mode of action of the luminous field is similar to that of other incepting influences. It operates from the primary, and is entirely passive in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear to be accompanied by any manifestation of physical stress or force, except, indeed, the experimental demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can be regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects the general action of light as an incepting agency. Its action on energised planetary material gives rise to certain transformations of energy, transformations exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. We will refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations of its working.

Perhaps the commonest example of transformation in which the luminous field appears as the incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant life on the surface of the earth. The growth and development of vegetation and plants generally is the outward evidence of certain energy transformations. The processes of growth, however, are of such a complex nature that it is impossible to state the governing energy conditions in their entirety, but, considering them merely in general fashion, it may be said that energy in various forms (potential, chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing material. Now the source of this energy is the axial energy of the earth, and, as stated above, the luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be others) in the process of transformation, a factor whereby this axial energy is converted into certain new forms. It is well known that, amongst the factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one of the most potent is that of light. The presence of sunlight is one of the essential conditions for the successful working of certain transformations of plant life, and these transformations vary not only in degree but in nature, according to the variation of the imposed light in intensity and quality. Some of the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived to have a direct determining influence upon them, exactly as in the cases of its well-known action in chemical phenomena—for instance, as in photography. Other examples will readily occur to the reader. One of the most interesting is the action of light on the eye itself. It may be pointed out indeed that light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of vision. Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily an influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, like all other forms of human activity, involves a certain expenditure of bodily energy. This energy is, of course, primarily derived from the axial energy of the earth through the medium of plant and animal life and the physico-chemical processes of the body itself. Its presence in one form or another is, in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation of a certain modicum of this energy, and the influence which incepts this transformation is the luminous field which originates in and emanates from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a similar way, planetary material under certain conditions may become the source of an incepting luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous field which, in common parlance, is said to enter the eye. In that organ, then, is found the mechanism or machine (§ 30), a complicated one, no doubt, whereby this process of transformation is carried out which makes the light influence perceptible to the senses. Of the precise nature of the action little can be said. The theme is rather one for a treatise on physiology. It may be pointed out, however, with regard to the process of transformation, that Dewar has already demonstrated the fact that when light falls on the retina of the eye, an electric current is set up in the optic nerve. The energy associated with this current is, of course, obtained at the expense of the bodily energy of the observer, and this energy, after passing, it may be, through a large number of transformation processes, will finally be returned to the source from which it was originally derived, namely, the axial energy of the earth. The luminous field, also, like the thermal field, has no transforming effect whatever on the energy of certain substances. It may pass completely through some and be reflected by others without any sign of energy transformation. Its properties are, in fact, simply the properties of light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. Now, it is very important, in studying matters of this kind, to realise that it is impossible ever to get beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed out that in no sphere of physics has the influence of so-called explanatory mechanical hypotheses been stronger than in that dealing with the properties of light. New theories are being expounded almost daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple phenomena. But it may be asked, In what does our really useful knowledge of light consist? Simply in our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one cannot go. We may attempt to explain phenomena, but to create for this purpose elastic ethereal media or substances without direct evidential phenomena in support is not to advance real knowledge. There are certain properties peculiar to the luminous as to all other incepting fields, certain conditions under which each respectively will act, and the true method of gaining real insight into these agencies is by the study of these actual properties (or phenomena) and conditions, and not by attempts to ultimately explain them. It will be evident that in most cases of natural energy operations there is more than one energy influence in action. As a rule there are several. In a growing plant, for example, we have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and cohesive influences all in operation at the same time, each performing its peculiar function in transformation, each contributing its own peculiar energy phenomena to the whole. This feature adds somewhat to the complexity of natural operations and to the difficulties in the precise description of the various phenomena with which they are associated.