Kitabı oku: «Managing Internationalisation», sayfa 5
| 2.5.2 | Critical Acclaim of Hofstede’s Dimensions |
The criticism concerning the Hofstede model is based on some of the points cited in 2.5.1.53
To 1.: The level of culture researched is not clearly defined, as Hofstede tries to approach values by questioning behaviour. There is a controversy concerning the legitimacy of such an approach, as the basic assumptions that are seen to form the most important (and hidden) parts of culture are not touched.
To 3.: All participants of the study are employees or managers of IBM. Some argue that the strong company culture of IBM leads to uniformity of their personnel in certain aspects, which provides a bias to the study. Hofstede argues the opposite and explains that just because of this certain homogeneity he is able to ascribe the differences observed to country cultures. Also, the IBM background enables him to avoid equivalency problems (as defined in 2.)
To 4.: Hofstede’s methodology is criticised in several aspects. His dimensions are not seen as appropriately selective and their denomination as not completely accurate. His comparison of different cultures is seen as superficial as it is not based on a thorough analysis of the culture described. Especially the equalisation of culture and countries is criticised, as many countries have within their borders several (sub)cultures that should be researched separately. Another critical aspect (also referred to by Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner in 1997) concerns the questions he employed that were seen as mainly an imitation of questions used in various US-based psychological profile tests.
The existence of a cultural bias in the setup of the original study was proven impressively in the findings of the Chinese Value Survey. However, Hofstede acknowledged these findings willingly and added them to his framework. It is natural for research issues that corrections and additions occur over time, given the willingness of more researchers worldwide to contribute to the original findings. In this respect Hofstede managed to induce many following studies.
Altogether, Hofstede’s framework and the range of his data collection for nowadays more than 90 countries has an outstanding effect on academics and practitioners dealing with cultural issues worldwide. As his model was the first to allow not only the classification of countries based on different criteria but also a sound comparison of them, it highly contributed to the inclusion of intercultural issues in the research of strategy, leadership, organisation, marketing and finance. It was also instrumental in the implementation of business systems for international companies, for example in the definition of compensation practices, training design, leadership styles and management control systems.
| 2.5.3 | Critical Acclaim of Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner’s Dilemmas |
After their early publications, one of their main critics was Hofstede himself in 1996 who argued, that Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner essentially measure Hofstede’s dimensions Individualism and Power Distance by using dilemmas that were interrelated. He also accused Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner of tuning their messages to what they think their customers like to hear, being more interested in commerce than in scholarship.54 The first edition of their dimensions was mainly tailored to the needs of professionals and consequently lacked detailed information about their methodological approach. This was the main area of criticism from other scientists. In a very measured response in 1997, Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner defended their approach and provided detailed information about their research methodology.55
Notwithstanding, the dilemma approach of Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner is subject to intense criticism based on the typical problems reviewed in 2.5.1.56
To 2.: The findings of Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner are visibly subject to incorrect equivalencies. One very obvious example is mentioned by Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner themselves concerning the percentages for not painting the house in their dilemma “specific versus diffuse”. They mention that the figures provided for Japan are probably based on a cultural misunderstanding of concept, as Japanese people generally do not paint houses, preferring wooden houses anyway.57
To 3.: The selected respondents where all participating in Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s management trainings that should sensitise for cultural issues. Some argue that these people were in the preparation of visiting a foreign country and hence already unusually self-conscious to intercultural issues. This would not be representative for inhabitants of a country in general.
To 4.: It remains unclear how Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner arrived at the identified 7 dimensions. As they rely heavily on former research from other scientists, they chose some of the dimensions at random from mainly a literature analysis. Also, the operationalisation of the dilemmas is criticised. It is not seen as proven, that the chosen statements really measure what they should measure. Some of the dimensions are even measured by different constructs, which could be seen as constituting different sub-dimensions that are not clearly defined. Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner provide differing dimensions and findings in different publications – some of them only with slightly changed denominations, some with differing contents. As a result, a claim to absolute right concerning the 7 dimensions is not accepted.
Despite the criticism, the dilemma approach of Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner is widely used in international management trainings and research. Their basic claim, that the behaviour in and of companies is affected by culture, is an important counterpoint to the predominant US-based notion of universally valid management approaches. The generally understandable language and the abundance of practical examples allow an easy use for practitioners. The database offers detailed information on countries that are not explicitly covered in Hofstede’s research, especially concerning Eastern Europe. They vehemently promote an increased awareness of cultural diversity within countries based on ethnic differences, for example within the US. This is complemented by the consequent consideration of differing cultures of companies (in mergers, for example), business sectors, professions and genders. Their detailed reconciliation process constitutes one of the few practical step-by-step approaches for prevalent leadership challenges in international organisations.
Apart from that, the success of the framework could partly be ascribed to Fons Trompenaars outstanding achievements as consultant and speaker.58
| 2.5.4 | Critical Acclaim of the GLOBE Study |
The designers of the GLOBE study considered many of the above mentioned points of criticism in their research approach:59
1 The definitions were discussed extensively with an international research team. The questionnaire was scrupulously tested by translation and retranslation as well as content analysis of documents, thus minimising definition problems.
2 In order to achieve certain equivalencies, all respondents were middlemanagers. This should ensure a certain comparability of the results for different cultures. The testing of terms also helped to prevent differences of understanding of the concepts used.
3 The respondents came from more than 900 different companies and 3 different business sectors of more than 60 different cultures, thus avoiding the influence of a distinctive company or business culture.
4 The concept includes a clear distinction of two cultural levels: the value level (how it should be) and the behaviour level (how it is), mirroring the state-of-the-art differentiation of percepta-level and concepta-level that are not always in harmony. As the approach was defined by 170 researchers from different nations and regions and from different professional backgrounds, the GLOBE study represents an outstanding multicultural effort. The dominance of an ethnocentric pattern can therefore be eliminated completely. The applied research and analysis methodology was highly sophisticated and thoroughly challenged.
Despite these efforts, several points of criticism still remain. Some critics stress for example the possible distortions due to the sole use of middle managers as respondents. The equalisation of countries and cultures is still a point for heated discussions, although GLOBE made some allowance for relevant sub-cultures as for example the separation of South Africa in a black sample and a white sample.
Hofstede criticised the multitude of inter-correlated dimensions that could have been condensed to fewer meta-dimensions. As nearly all dimensions show positive correlations of national welfare, these dimensions are influenced by the national welfare itself and do not have to be explained by cultural peculiarities.60 The GLOBE authors argue with exactly the opposite train of thought: the correlation shows that cultural peculiarities influence the national welfare; therefore the correlations of the differing dimensions are of special interest for researchers.
The objection of the maximisation of the number of countries studied instead of detailed analyses of single countries was met with the publication of the second GLOBE volume concerning the in-depth analysis of 25 countries by Chhokar, Brodbeck and House in 2008.
Due to the open publication of the compiled data and the number of researchers and research institutes involved, GLOBE could be expected to induce additional cultural research over the next decade. As its findings constitute a unique basis for country and (intercultural) leadership development their further inclusion into management theory and practice can be predicted.
| 2.6 | Citations & Notes |
1 Hall, E.T. (1976). He uses instead the terms “hidden dimensions of unconscious culture” or “cultural/collective unconscious”.
2 Bennett, MJ. (1993)
3 Adapted from Bennett, M. J. (1998)
4 All of the following information in this chapter is taken from: Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G.J., & Minkov, M. (2010). A more detailed and scientific description of the Hofstede framework could be found in Hofstede, G.H. (2006).
5 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), p. 6
6 Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), p. 7
7 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), p. 8
8 Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), p. 9
9 Hofstede, G.H. (2006), pp. 87-88
10 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 72-83
11 Scores from Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 57-59
12 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), p. 65
13 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 117, 124
14 Scores from Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 95-97
15 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 159, 170
16 Scores from Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 141-143
17 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 203, 208, 217
18 Scores from Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 192-194
19 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 243, 251
20 Scores from Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 255-258
21 Johanson, J., & Vahlne, J.-E. (1977), pp. 23-32
22 Holden, N., & Burgess, M. (1994), p. 33
23 Scores from Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 59, 95-96, 141, 193, 255-256 and Hofstede, G. J. (2001), pp. 256-257 (CVS)
24 Ronen, S., & Shenkar, O. (1985). Their research revealed the following clusters: Anglo, Arabic, Germanic, Latin American, Latin European, Near Eastern, Nordic and Far Eastern. The countries Brazil, India, Israel and Japan were considered as independent from others.
25 Based on Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 291, 297
26 Scores from Hofstede, G.H., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010), pp. 282-285
27 Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), pp. 1-2
28 All following information was derived from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012). This book is highly recommendable as it combines research and practical examples on doing business with different cultures. Also recommendable are the older books providing more insights into the practical relevance of the defined dilemmas, especially Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2004); Trompenaars, F., & Woolliams, P. (2003); & Trompenaars, F., & Prud’ homme, P. (2004).
29 Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 8
30 Based on Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), pp. 33-34
31 Percentages from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 56. Percentages for countries marked with “*” were derived from the connected Trompenaars database, access usually granted via the website http://ridingthewavesofculture.com. Due to problems with the website, the scores were provided via email by Trompenaars Hampden-Turner/KPMG People & Change, 10.03.2015.
32 Based on Trompenaars, F. (2004, November 16), p. 12 (A9)
33 Percentages from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 66. Percentages for countries marked with “*” derived from the connected Trompenaars database, access usually granted via the website http://ridingthewavesofculture.com. Due to problems with the website, the scores were provided via email by Trompenaars Hampden-Turner/KPMG People & Change, 10.03.2015.
34 Percentages from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 88. Percentages for countries marked with “*” were derived from the connected Trompenaars database, access usually granted via the website http://ridingthewavesofculture.com. Due to problems with the website, the scores were provided via email by Trompenaars Hampden-Turner/KPMG People & Change, 10.03.2015.
35 Percentages from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 109. Percentages for countries marked with “*” were derived from the connected Trompenaars database, access usually granted via the website http://ridingthewavesofculture.com. Due to problems with the website, the scores were provided via email by Trompenaars Hampden-Turner/KPMG People & Change, 10.03.2015. For Japan (marked with #) please note that this figure is based probably on a cultural misunderstanding of concept, as Japanese people generally do not paint houses, preferring wooden houses anyway.
36 Percentages from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 129. Percentages for countries marked with “*” were derived from the connected Trompenaars database, access usually granted via the website http://ridingthewavesofculture.com. Due to problems with the website, the scores were provided via email by Trompenaars Hampden-Turner/KPMG People & Change, 10.03.2015.
37 Based on Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 156
38 Based on Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 170
39 Percentages from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 158; for countries marked with “*” no percentage was made available.
40 Inspiring insights into the differentiation of clock time and event time cultures are provided in Levine, R. (1997).
41 Percentages from Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), p. 176. Percentages for countries marked with “*” were derived from the connected Trompenaars database, access usually granted via the website http://ridingthewavesofculture.com. Due to problems with the website, the scores were provided via email by Trompenaars Hampden-Turner/KPMG People & Change, 10.03.2015.
42 Based on Trompenaars, F. (16 November, 2004)
43 Based on Trompenaars, F., & Wooliams, P. (2003), p. 41
44 Details and examples concerning successful reconciliation processes are provided in Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), pp. 247-261 and in Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2004), pp. 267-294.
45 House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004). This volume is the basis for all following information about the GLOBE study.
46 Chhokar, J. S., Brodbeck, F. C., & House, R. J. (Eds.). (2008)
47 House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004), p. 15
48 House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004), p. XV
49 Based on House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004), pp. 11-13
50 Based on House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., & Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004), p. 190
51 University of Wollongong (Ed.). (2007); Kutschker, M., & Schmid, S. (2011), pp. 731-734
52 Trompenaars, F. (2011, Jully 11)
53 For an overview of criticism on Hofstede refer to Kutschker, M., & Schmid, S. (2011), pp. 731-734 or Jones, M. L. (2007). For criticism on his methodology and analysis refer to, amongst others, McSweeney, B. (2002); in defense of Hofstede refer to Søndergaard, M. (2002). Please note: So far the criticism published refers to the outdated versions of Hofstede’s research and not his most recent publication.
54 Hofstede, G. (1996)
55 Hampden- Turner, C., & Trompenaars, F. (1997)
56 For an overview of criticism on Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner refer to Kutschker, M., & Schmid, S. (2011), pp. 740-744 or Browaeys, M. J., & Price, R. (2008), pp. 87-88
57 Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012), pp. 109-110
58 According to the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner website Trompenaars Hampden-Turner. (2014) (http://www2.thtconsulting.com/about/people/fons-trompenaars/), Fons Trompenaars was mentioned as one of the top 5 management consultants in a Business magazine in 1999, voted one of the top 20 HR Most Influential International Thinkers 2011 by HR Magazine and ranked in the Thinkers50 to be one of the most influential management thinkers alive in November 2011.
59 For an overview of criticism on the GLOBE study refer to Kutschker, M., & Schmid, S. (2011), pp. 761-765
60 Hofstede, G. H. (2006)
| 3 | Leading the Internationalisation Process |
Readers are familiar with classical concepts and the latest research findings concerning good and successful leadership behaviour. They understand the inner logic of the first EFQM criterion as well as its view on the role of leaders and their most important activities. They know how to define a core purpose, create and formulate a compelling vision and responsibly guide an organisation with core values and discernible ethics. Improving leadership behaviour based on feedback processes is seen as an integral part of leadership ability. The pitfalls of common concepts for driving performance are understood, so that they can be avoided in particular organisational settings. Readers comprehend different organisational cultures and embrace diversity as an indispensable aspect of excellence in international environments. They theoretically know how to design effective change processes that avoid eight typical mistakes.
Behind the backdrop of the knowledge gained about cross-cultural issues, this section deals with the challenges for leaders to fulfil the manifold requirements of their demanding role. An overview of relevant aspects is provided in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1: Concept Map “Leading the Internationalisation Process”
| 3.1 | Good Leadership |
Leadership can be defined roughly as “the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of (…) a set of goals.”1 The views on good leadership differ tremendously from culture to culture and from person to person. The EFQM model uses a people-oriented leadership approach which is expressed compellingly in the following definition: leadership is the “art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of the group’s mission and purpose.”2 Even scientific research does not supply the one and only definition of a good leader nor does it offer conclusive information about characteristics that create one. This chapter provides an overview of the most recent views on good leadership behaviour and excellent leadership activities.
| 3.1.1 | The Coherent Leadership Approach |
Examining the quality of leadership requires the consideration of several aspects or dimensions, namely the personality of the leader itself, the leadership behaviour, the leadership situation including the organisational context and the subordinates as well as a clear definition of leadership success. This interrelated chain of aspects is diagrammed in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2: Aspects Influencing Leadership Success
Many leadership theories or related recommendations for successful leaders focus only on one of these aspects and neglect the influence of others. One of the most recent additions to leadership theory strives to combine these aspects in a coherent leadership approach. It is based on a three-step-analysis: first a thorough examination of the situation in order to determine potentially successful leadership behaviour, second an introspection of the leader concerning acceptable alternatives and third an individual negotiation of approaches with team members that is enhanced by continuous feedback.3 This non-normative approach is especially relevant for an international environment.
Leadership in any organisation is tied to a very special context. Determinant factors are the organisation’s (management) system with its culture, rules and regulations and the stakeholders, especially the subordinates, the fellow leaders and the supervisors inside the organisation but also external stakeholders like owners or regulating authorities.
The organisational culture comprises a certain view on favoured and acceptable leadership behaviour (compare also chapter 3.4.1). In large organisations, this view is recorded in guidelines, for example leadership principles or code of ethics. The framework for each leader is also set by the processes of people management, mainly concerning the leader’s authority and rules for performance appraisals and feedback. In addition, the organisational system has a very direct influence on leadership success as the targets set for the leader constitute its main criterion.
Good leaders are able to live up to the expectations of all stakeholders involved. Looking for an optimal way of leading therefore requires a profound analysis of the stakeholder’s targets and their emotional requirements. These expectations can differ considerably. Whereas supervisors might expect from a leader a firm stand towards the subordinates in favour of enhancing orders the subordinates might expect an open attitude and freedom to find their own way of working. As conflicting expectations occur frequently, leaders are recommended to orient themselves towards the achievement of their leadership objectives. When leadership success and related objectives are clearly defined it should be possible to determine the behaviour needed from the staff members in order to achieve the goals. The leadership approach should then be tailored to these circumstances in a way that elicits the desired behaviour from the subordinates.
Alternative approaches to choose from are provided by scientific research. “Classic” as well as “new” approaches rival with each other about providing the best solutions to the general question of good leadership. So far, extensive research was not able to find the philosopher’s stone in form of one outstanding approach for all circumstances. Correlations between standardised approaches and certain success criteria were always lower than correlations between specifically chosen leadership approaches for certain targets and their success criteria.
Approaches to choose from are manifold and highlight the same dimensions as presented in Figure 3-2.
Trait Theories searched for personality traits that form great leaders (for example the Great Man Theory). Most recent characteristics identified as being positively related with leadership success include body height as well as self-confidence, emotional maturity, integrity, assertiveness, high power need, distinct performance motivation and openness.4
Behavioural Theories search the most effective leadership behaviour. A typical and permanent behavioural pattern of a leader is defined as leadership style.5 Different theories distinguish different styles, sometimes in a one-dimensional, sometimes in a multi-dimensional approach. Four classic studies are depicted in Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4.6 None of the presented leadership styles were proven to be optimal for all circumstances. Depending on the operationalisation of success (e.g. measured by performance or by satisfaction of team members) very different results were achieved in empiric studies. Despite the heterogeneous results, knowing these leadership styles present leaders with arguments in favour or against certain behaviour and allows choosing and assessing different alternatives.
Figure 3-3: One-Dimensional Behavioural Leadership Theories Based on Participation7
Figure 3-4: Two-Dimensional Behavioural Leadership Theories8
Based on the shortcomings of the behavioural theories the scientific research focused on more complex patterns by taking situational factors into account. The resulting contingency theories consider different aspects to describe the situation and try to define an optimal leadership style for certain specifications of these aspects. They can be distinguished based on the number of leadership styles they use and the situation variables they assess. Three established contingency models are displayed in Figure 3-5. Other important contingency theories to be considered are House’s Path-Goal-Theory and Reddin’s 3D-Model. Although all of these models made an important contribution to the overall understanding of leadership dynamics none of them is comprehensive. The immanent simplification of any model leads to the need to focus on chosen variables, thus limiting their relevance.9
Figure 3-5: Contingency Models10
Recently, the relationship between leader and subordinates was established as the most relevant aspect for leadership success. The resulting leadership approaches rely heavily on the personality of the leader as they require certain traits in order to realise their full potential. The basic full range leadership model, as depicted in Figure 3-6, states that transactional leadership based on leadership concepts of reward exchanges leads to average performance of the subordinates that could be augmented by exerting transformational leadership. This kind of leadership is mainly emotion-based and closely related to traits like charisma. Transformational leaders stimulate and inspire their followers to exert extra-effort that leads to extraordinary success. Certain studies attest this leadership approach a higher leadership success, although the theoretical constructs used are debatable and the effects are closely related to the US-American culture.11
Figure 3-6: Relationship-Based Leadership Approaches12
All of the above mentioned models can be extremely helpful if used for broadening the choice of leadership behaviour alternatives in certain circumstances. They can be ominous if used as a panacea for how to lead. The first problem is the correct assessment of the situation. More often than not the right way to lead a team would present itself if the leader was able to assess correctly if the subordinates are truly unwilling or only unable. Also, a daily change in leadership behaviour leads to mistrust as this contrasts with the need for reliability and authenticity. The main problem of the successful implementation of those theories lies in the personality of the leader himself. A recommended leadership style that is not in line with the leader’s character will not be perceived as genuine and will therefore not elicit the results required.
Consequently, the coherent leadership approach requires the leader to perform a thorough introspection in order to find out which leadership behaviour or style matches the leader’s personality and motives for taking over a leadership position. Another important factor is the leader’s implicit theory of his subordinates. This implicit theory can be described as the attitude towards subordinates. Leaders with positive attitudes that believe that their subordinates are competent and committed are more willing to delegate tasks or use a transformative leadership style.13
Assessing a leader’s personality should be supported by a reliable personality inventory. Fortunately, the different original approaches of assessing personality lead to an internationally accepted “gold standard”, the so-called Five Factor Model (FFM). It consists of the “Big Five” personality factors that account for differences in normal adult personality and which further research found were measurable without overlap. The Big Five factors consist of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness (O), Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C).14 These five factors, also referred to as five domains, do not represent an exhausting description of personality as they represent the highest level of trait description and therefore characterise a person at a global level. Hence, each of these factors is further defined by a cluster of six more specific and intercorrelated traits that are called facets. The domain descriptions and related facets are depicted in Figure 3-7. Global domain scores for a person could be obtained by a brief and comprehensive personality inventory called NEO-FFI. This test comprises 60 items that have to be answered and is widely used in recent research projects where personality factors are involved. As the domains proved to be relevant and reliable in intercultural settings a number of different language versions and related cultural-based scales for statistical interpretation are available. The more detailed and comprehensive NEO PI-R personality inventory is also available in different language/cultural versions. It consists of 240 items to be scored and represents all 30 facets.15
