Kitabı oku: «A Grammar of the English Tongue», sayfa 3
Of ADJECTIVES
Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having neither case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all relations without any change; as, a good woman, good women, of a good woman; a good man, good men, of good men.
The Comparison of Adjectives
The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest; lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest; high, higher, highest.
Some words are irregularly compared; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (for moe), more (for moer) most (for moest); late, later, latest or last.
Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, most, as nether, nethermost; outer, outermost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore, former, foremost.
Most is sometimes added to a substantive, as, topmost, southmost.
Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only compared by more and most, as, benevolent, more benevolent, most benevolent.
All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, fair, fairer, or more fair; fairest, or most fair.
In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written for fairer, than most fair for fairest.
The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily reduced to rules.
Monosyllables are commonly compared.
Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared otherwise than by more and most, as, deplorable, more deplorable, most deplorable.
Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome, toilsome; in ful, as, careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling, charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as, careless, harmless; in ed, as wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent; in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy; in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary.
Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers formed without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected so little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently occur.
So shady is compared by Milton.
She in shadiest covert hid,
Tun'd her nocturnal note. Par. Lost.
And virtuous.
What she wills to say or do,
Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. Par. Lost.
So trifling by Ray, who is indeed of no great authority.
It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately do all the meanest and triflingest things himself, without making use of any inferior or subordinate minister. Ray on the Creation.
Famous, by Milton.
I shall be nam'd among the famousest
Of women, sung at solemn festivals. Milton's Agonistes.
Inventive, by Ascham.
Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes, and roundest tongues in all matters. Ascham's Schoolmaster.
Mortal, by Bacon.
The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. Bacon.
Natural, by Wotton.
I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturalest considerations that belong to this piece. Wotton's Architecture.
Wretched, by Jonson.
The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps; such as presuming on their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when they understand not things. Ben Jonson.
Powerful, by Milton.
We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight,
What heav'n's great king hath pow'rfullest to send
Against us from about his throne. Par. Lost.
The termination in ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt; they therefore admit no comparison. This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely used in the solemn or sublime style.
Of PRONOUNS
Pronouns, in the English language, are, I, thou, he, with their plurals, we, ye, they; it, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever, my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, theirs, this, that, other, another, the same, some.
The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected.
You is commonly used in modern writers for ye, particularly in the language of ceremony, where the second person plural is used for the second person singular, You are my friend.
For it the practice of ancient writers was to use he, and for its, his.
The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or change of termination.
The possessive of the first person is my, mine, our, ours; of the second, thy, thine, your, yours; of the third, from he, his; from she, her, and hers; and in the plural, their, theirs, for both sexes.
Ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used when the substantive preceding is separated by a verb, as These are our books. These books are ours. Your children excel ours in stature, but ours surpass yours in learning.
Ours, yours, hers, theirs, notwithstanding their seeming plural termination, are applied equally to singular and plural substantives, as, This book is ours. These books are ours.
Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, as mine amiable lady: which though now disused in prose, might be still properly continued in poetry: they are used as ours and yours, when they are referred to a substantive preceding, as thy house is larger than mine, but my garden is more spacious than thine.
Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the plural of it, and are therefore applied to things.
Pronouns relative are, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever.
Who is now used in relation to persons, and which in relation to things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was common to say, the man which, though I remember no example of the thing who.
Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which.
The fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world. Milton.
Whether is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; and has no plural, being applied only to one of a number, commonly to one of two, as Whether of these is left I know not. Whether shall I choose? It is now almost obsolete.
What, whether relative or interrogative, is without variation.
Whosoever, whatsoever, being compounded of who or what, and soever, follow the rule of their primitives.
The plural others is not used but when it is referred to a substantive preceding, as I have sent other horses. I have not sent the same horses, but others.
Another, being only an other, has no plural.
Here, there, and where, joined with certain particles, have a relative and pronominal use. Hereof, herein, hereby, hereafter, herewith, thereof, therein, thereby, thereupon, therewith, whereof, wherein, whereby, whereupon, wherewith, which signify, of this, in this, &c. of that, in that, &c. of which, in which, &c.
Therefore and wherefore, which are properly there for and where for, for that, for which, are now reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The rest seem to be passing by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and analogous. They are referred both to singular and plural antecedents.
There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, own and self.
Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my own hand, our own house. It is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety, or opposition; as, I live in my own house, that is, not in a hired house. This I did with my own hand, that is, without help or not by proxy.
Self is added to possessives, as myself, yourselves; and sometimes to personal pronouns, as himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, expresses emphasis and opposition, as I did this myself, that is, not another; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as We hurt ourselves by vain rage.
Himself, itself, themselves, are supposed by Wallis to be put by corruption, for his self, it self, their selves; so that self is always a substantive. This seems justly observed, for we say, He came himself; Himself shall do this; where himself cannot be an accusative.
Of the VERB
English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I languish. The neuters are formed like the actives.
Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit, and become neuters; as I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now striking.
Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the present, and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the auxiliary verbs, have, shall, will, let, may, can, and the infinitive of the active or neuter verb.
The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the substantive verb, as I am loved.
To have. Indicative Mood
Present Tense
Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has,
Plur. We have, ye have, they have.
Has is a termination connoted from hath, but now more frequently used both in verse and prose.
Simple Preterit
Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had
Plur. We had, ye had, they had.
Compound Preterit
Sing. I have had, thou hast had, he has or hath had;
Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had.
Preterpluperfect
Sing. I had had, thou hadst had, he had had.
Plur. We had had, ye had had, they had had.
Future
Sing. I shall have, thou shalt have, he shall have;
Plur. We shall have, ye shall have, they shall have.
Second Future
Sing. I will have, thou wilt have, he will have;
Plur. We will have, ye wilt have, they will have.
By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of shall and will.
Imperative Mood
Sing. Have, or have thou, let him have;
Plur. Let us have, have or have ye, let them have.
Conjunctive Mood
Present
Sing. I have, thou have, he have;
Plur. We have, ye have, they have.
Preterit simple as in the Indicative
Preterit compound
Sing. I have had, thou have had, he have had;
Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had.
Future
Sing. I shall have, as in the Indicative.
Second Future
Sing. I shall have had, thou shalt have had, he shall have had;
Plur. We shall have had, ye shall have had, they shall have had.
Potential
The potential form of speaking is expressed by may, can, in the present; and might, could, or should, in the preterit, joined with the infinitive mood of the verb.
Present
Sing. I may have, thou mayst have, he may have;
Plur. We may have, ye may have, they may have.
Preterit
Sing. I might have, thou mightst have, he might have;
Plur. We might have, ye might have, they might have.
Present
Sing. I can have, thou canst have, he can have;
Plur. We can have, ye can have, they can have.
Preterit
Sing. I could have, thou couldst have, he could have;
Plur. We could have, ye could have, they could have.
In like manner should is united to the verb.
There is likewise a double Preterit.
Sing. I should have had, thou shouldst have had, he should have had;
Plur. We should have had, ye should have had, they should have had.
In like manner we use, I might have had; I could have had, &c.
Infinitive Mood
Present. To have.
Preterit. To have had.
Participle present. Having.
Participle preterit. Had.
Verb Active. To love
Indicative. Present
Sing. I love, thou lovest, he loveth or loves;
Plur. We love, ye love, they love.
Preterit simple
Sing. I loved, thou lovedst, he loved;
Plur. We loved, ye loved, they loved.
Preterperfect compound. I have loved, &c.
Preterpluperfect. I had loved, &c.
Future. I shall love, &c. I will love, &c.
Imperative
Sing. Love or love thou, let him love;
Plur. Let us love, love or love ye, let them love.
Conjunctive. Present
Sing. I love, thou love, he love;
Plur. We love, ye love, they love.
Preterit simple, as in the indicative.
Preterit compound. I have loved, &c.
Future. I shall love, &c.
Second Future. I shall have loved, &c.
Potential
Present. I may or can love, &c.
Preterit. I might, could, or should love, &c.
Double Preterit. I might, could, or should have
loved, &c.
Infinitive
Present. To love.
Preterit. To have loved.
Participle present. Loving.
Participle past. Loved.
The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to the different tenses of the verb to be, which must therefore be here exhibited.
Indicative. Present
Sing. I am, thou art, he is;
Plur. We are or be, ye are or be, they are or be.
The plural be is now little in use.
Preterit
Sing. I was, thou wast or wert, he was;
Plur. We were, ye were, they were.
Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be used in the indicative.
Preterit compound. I have been, &c.
Preterpluperfect. I had been, &c.
Future. I shall or will be, &c.
Imperative
Sing. Be thou; let him be;
Plur. Let us be; be ye; let them be.
Conjunctive. Present
Sing. I be, thou beest, he be;
Plur. We be, ye be, they be.
Preterit
Sing. I were, thou wert, he were;
Plur. We were, ye were, they were.
Preterit compound. I have been, &c.
Future. I shall have been, &c.
Potential
I may or can; would, could, or should be; could,
would, or should have been, &c.
Infinitive
Present. To be.
Preterit. To have been.
Participle present. Being.
Participle preterit. Having been.
Passive Voice. Indicative Mood
I am loved, &c. I was loved, &c. I have been
loved, &c.
Conjunctive Mood
If I be loved, &c. If I were loved, &c. If I shall
have been loved, &c.
Potential Mood
I may or can be loved, &c. I might, could, or
should be loved, &c. I might, could, or should
have been loved, &c.
Infinitive
Present. To be loved.
Preterit. To have been loved.
Participle. Loved.
There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood is joined to the verb do in its various inflections, which are therefore to be learned in this place.
To do
Indicative. Present
Sing. I do, thou dost, he doth;
Plur. We do, ye do, they do.
Preterit
Sing. I did, thou didst, he did;
Plur. We did, ye did, they did.
Preterit., &c. I have done, &c. I had done, &c.
Future. I shall or will do, &c.
Imperative
Sing. Do thou, let him do;
Plur. Let us do, do ye, let them do.
Conjunctive. Present
Sing. I do, thou do, he do;
Plur. We do, ye do, they do.
The rest are as in the Indicative.
Infinite. To do, to have done.
Participle present. Doing.
Participle preterit. Done.
Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did love; simply for I love, or I loved; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech.
It is sometimes used emphatically; as,
I do love thee, and when I love thee not,
Chaos is come again. Shakespeare.
It is frequently joined with a negative; as, I like her, but I do not love her; I wished him success, but did not help him. This, by custom at least, appears more easy than the other form of expressing the same sense by a negative adverb after the verb, I like her, but love her not.
The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at least in prose, without the word do; as, Stop him, but do not hurt him; Praise beauty, but do not dote on it.
Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used through all the persons; as, Do I live? Dost thou strike me? Do they rebel? Did I complain? Didst thou love her? Did she die? So likewise in negative interrogations; Do I not yet grieve? Did she not die?
Do and did are thus used only for the present and simple preterit.
There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is used, may not improperly denominate them neuter passives, as they are inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb substantive to be. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in French; as, I am risen, surrexi, Latin; Je me suis levé, French. I was walked out, exieram: Je m'étois promené.
In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, eo. I am grieving, doleo, She is dying, illa moritur. The tempest is raging, furit procella. I am pursuing an enemy, hostem insequor. So the other tenses, as, We were walking, ετυγχανομεν περιπατουντες, I have been walking, I had been walking, I shall or will be walking.
There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, grammatica jam nunc chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, ara excuduntur. This is, in my opinion, a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, but now somewhat obsolete: The book is a printing, The brass is a forging; a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying action, according to the analogy of this language.
The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used among the purer writers of former times after if, though, ere, before, till or until, whether, except, unless, whatsoever, whomsoever, and words of wishing; as, Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham be ignorant of us, and Israel acknowledge us not.
