Kitabı oku: «First Principles», sayfa 33

But leaving this ultimate insoluble problem, and confining ourselves to the proximate and not necessarily insoluble one, we find reason for thinking that after the completion of those various equilibrations which bring to a close all the forms of Evolution we have contemplated, there must still continue an equilibration of a far wider kind. When that integration everywhere in progress throughout our Solar System, has reached its climax, there will remain to be effected the immeasurably greater integration of our Solar System, with all other such systems. As in those minor forms now going on around us, this integration with its concomitant equilibration, involves the change of aggregate motion into diffused motion; so in those vaster forms hereafter to be carried out, there must similarly be gained in molecular motion what is lost in the motion of masses; and the inevitable transformation of this motion of masses into molecular motion, cannot take place without reducing the masses to a nebulous form. Thus we seem led to the conclusion that the entire process of things, as displayed in the aggregate of the visible Universe, is analogous to the entire process of things as displayed in the smallest aggregates. Where, as in organic bodies, the whole series of changes constituting Evolution can be traced, we saw that, dynamically considered, Evolution is a change from molecular motion to the motion of masses; and this change, becoming more active during the ascending phase of Evolution while the masses increase in bulk and heterogeneity, eventually begins to get less active; until, passing through stages in which the integration grows greater, and the equilibrium more definite, it finally ceases; whereupon there arises, by an ulterior process, an increase of molecular motion, ending in the more or less complete dissolution of the aggregate. And here we find reason to believe that, along with each of the thousands of similar ones dispersed through the heavens, our Solar System, after passing through stages during which the motion of masses is produced at the expense of lost molecular motion, and during which there goes on an increasingly active differentiation and integration, arrives at a climax whence these changes, beginning to decline in activity, slowly bring about that complete integration and equilibration which in other cases we call death; and that there afterwards comes a time, when the still-remaining motions of masses are transformed into a molecular motion which causes dissolution of the masses. Motion as well as Matter being fixed in quantity, it would seem that the change in the distribution of Matter which Motion effects, coming to a limit in whichever direction it is carried, the indestructible Motion thereupon necessitates a reverse distribution. Apparently, the universally-coexistent forces of attraction and repulsion, which, as we have seen, necessitate rhythm in all minor changes throughout the Universe, also necessitate rhythm in the totality of its changes – produce now an immeasurable period during which the attractive forces predominating, cause universal concentration, and then an immeasurable period during which the repulsive forces predominating, cause universal diffusion – alternate eras of Evolution and Dissolution. And thus there is suggested the conception of a past during which there have been successive Evolutions similar to that which is now going on; and a future during which successive other such Evolutions may go on.

Let none suppose, however, that this is to be taken as anything more than a speculation. In dealing with times and spaces and forces so immensely transcending those of which we have definite experience, we are in danger of passing the limits to human intelligence. Though these times and spaces and forces cannot literally be classed as infinite; yet they are so utterly beyond the possibility of definite conception, as to be almost equally unthinkable with the infinite. What has been above said, should therefore be regarded simply as a possible answer to a possible doubt. When, pushing to its extreme the argument that Evolution must come to a close in complete equilibrium or rest, the reader suggests that for aught which appears to the contrary, the Universal Death thus implied will continue indefinitely; it is legitimate to point out how, on carrying the argument still further, we are led to infer a subsequent Universal Life. But while this last inference may fitly be accepted as a demurrer to the first, it would be unwise to accept it in any more positive sense.

§ 137. Returning from this parenthetical discussion, concerning the probable or possible state of things that may arise after Evolution has run its course; and confining ourselves to the changes constituting Evolution, with which alone we are immediately concerned; we have now to inquire whether the cessation of these changes, in common with all their transitional characteristics, admits of à priori proof. It will soon become apparent that equilibration, not less than the preceding general principles, is deducible from the persistence of force.

We have seen (§ 85) that phenomena are interpretable only as the results of universally-coexistent forces of attraction and repulsion. These universally-coexistent forces of attraction and repulsion, are, indeed, the complementary aspects of that absolutely persistent force which is the ultimate datum of consciousness. Just in the same way that the equality of action and re-action is a corollary from the persistence of force, since their inequality would imply the disappearance of the differential force into nothing, or its appearance out of nothing; so, we cannot become conscious of an attractive force without becoming simultaneously conscious of an equal and opposite repulsive force. For every experience of a muscular tension, (under which form alone we can immediately know an attractive force,) presupposes an equivalent resistance – a resistance shown in the counter-balancing pressure of the body against neighbouring objects, or in that absorption of force which gives motion to the body, or in both – a resistance which we cannot conceive as other than equal to the tension, without conceiving force to have either appeared or disappeared, and so denying the persistence of force. And from this necessary correlation, results our inability, before pointed out, of interpreting any phenomena save in terms of these correlatives – an inability shown alike in the compulsion we are under to think of the statical forces which tangible matter displays, as due to the attraction and repulsion of its atoms, and in the compulsion we are under to think of dynamical forces exercised through space, by regarding space as filled with atoms similarly endowed. Thus from the existence of a force that is for ever unchangeable in quantity, there follows, as a necessary corollary, the co-extensive existence of these opposite forms of force – forms under which the conditions of our consciousness oblige us to represent that absolute force which transcends our knowledge.

But the forces of attraction and repulsion being universally co-existent, it follows, as before shown, that all motion is motion under resistance. Units of matter, solid, liquid, aëriform, or ethereal, filling the space which any moving body traverses, offer to such body the resistance consequent on their cohesion, or their inertia, or both. In other words, the denser or rarer medium which occupies the places from moment to moment passed through by such moving body, having to be expelled from them, as much motion is abstracted from the moving body as is given to the medium in expelling it from these places. This being the condition under which all motion occurs, two corollaries result. The first is, that the deductions perpetually made by the communication of motion to the resisting medium, cannot but bring the motion of the body to an end in a longer or shorter time. The second is, that the motion of the body cannot cease until these deductions destroy it. In other words, movement must continue till equilibration takes place; and equilibration must eventually take place. Both these are manifest deductions from the persistence of force. To say that the whole or part of a body’s motion can disappear, save by transfer to something which resists its motion, is to say that the whole or part of its motion can disappear without effect; which is to deny the persistence of force. Conversely, to say that the medium traversed can be moved out of the body’s path, without deducting from the body’s motion, is to say that motion of the medium can arise out of nothing; which is to deny the persistence of force. Hence this primordial truth is our immediate warrant for the conclusions, that the changes which Evolution presents, cannot end until equilibrium is reached; and that equilibrium must at last be reached.

Equally necessary, because equally deducible from this same truth that transcends proof, are the foregoing propositions respecting the establishment and maintenance of moving equilibria, under their several aspects. It follows from the persistence of force, that the various motions possessed by any aggregate, either as a whole or among its parts, must be severally dissipated by the resistances they severally encounter; and that thus, such of them as are least in amount, or meet with greatest opposition, or both, will be brought to a close while the others continue. Hence in every diversely moving aggregate, there results a comparatively early dissipation of motions which are smaller and much resisted; followed by long-continuance of the larger and less-resisted motions; and so there arise dependent and independent moving equilibria. Hence also may be inferred the tendency to conservation of such moving equilibria; since, whenever the new motion given to the parts of a moving equilibrium by a disturbing force, is not of such kind and amount that it cannot be dissipated before the pre-existing motions (in which case it brings the moving equilibrium to an end) it must be of such kind and amount that it can be dissipated before the pre-existing motions (in which case the moving equilibrium is re-established).

Thus from the persistence of force follow, not only the various direct and indirect equilibrations going on around, together with that cosmical equilibration which brings Evolution under all its forms to a close; but also those less manifest equilibrations shown in the re-adjustments of moving equilibria that have been disturbed. By this ultimate principle is proveable the tendency of every organism, disordered by some unusual influence, to return to a balanced state. To it also may be traced the capacity, possessed in a slight degree by individuals, and in a greater degree by species, of becoming adapted to new circumstances. And not less does it afford a basis for the inference, that there is a gradual advance towards harmony between man’s mental nature and the conditions of his existence. After finding that from it are deducible the various characteristics of Evolution, we finally draw from it a warrant for the belief, that Evolution can end only in the establishment of the greatest perfection and the most complete happiness.

CHAPTER XVII.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

§ 138. In the chapter on “Laws in general,” after delineating the progress of mankind in recognizing uniformities of relation among surrounding phenomena – after showing how the actual succession in the establishment of different orders of co-existences and sequences, corresponds with the succession deducible à priori from the conditions to human knowledge – after showing how, by the ever-multiplying experiences of constant connections among phenomena, there has been gradually generated the conception of universal conformity to law; it was suggested that this conception will become still clearer, when it is perceived that there are laws of wider generality than any of those at present accepted.

The existence of such more general laws, is, indeed, almost implied by the ensemble of the facts set forth in the above-named chapter; since they make it apparent, that the process hitherto carried on, of bringing phenomena under fewer and wider laws, has not ceased, but is advancing with increasing rapidity. Apart, however, from evidence of this kind, the man of science, hourly impressed with new proof of uniformity in the relations of things, until the conception of uniformity has become with him a necessity of thought, tacitly entertains the conclusion that the minor uniformities which Science has thus far established, will eventually be merged in uniformities that are universal. Taught as he is by every observation and experiment, to regard phenomena as manifestations of Force; and learning as he does to contemplate Force as unchangeable in amount; there tends to grow up in him a belief in unchangeable laws common to Force under all its manifestations. Though he may not have formulated it to himself, he is prepared to recognize the truth, that, being fixed in quantity, fixed in its two ultimate modes of presentation (Matter and Motion), and fixed in the conditions under which it is presented (Time and Space); Force must have certain equally fixed laws of action, common to all the changes it produces.

Hence to the classes who alone are likely to read these pages, the hypothesis of a fundamental unity, extending from the simplest inorganic actions up to the most complex associations of thought and the most involved social processes, will have an à priori probability. All things being recognized as having one source, will be expected to exhibit one method. Even in the absence of a clue to uniformities co-extensive with all modes of Force, as the mathematical uniformities are co-extensive with Space and Time, it will be inferred that such uniformities exist. And thus a certain presumption will result in favour of any formula, of a generality great enough to include concrete phenomena of every order.

§ 139. In the chapters on the “Law of Evolution,” there was set forth a principle, which, so far as accessible evidence enables us to judge, possesses this universality. The order of material changes, first perceived to have certain constant characteristics in cases where it could be readily traced from beginning to end, we found to have these same characteristics in cases where it could be less readily traced; and we saw numerous indications that these same characteristics were displayed during past changes of which we have no direct knowledge. The transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, first observed by naturalists to be exhibited during the development of every plant and animal, proved to be also exhibited during the development of every society; both in its political and industrial organization, and in all the products of social life, – language, science, art, and literature. From the disclosures of geology, we drew adequate support for the conclusion, that in the structure of the Earth there has similarly been a progress from uniformity, through ever-increasing degrees of multiformity, to the complex state which we now see. And on the assumption of that nebular origin to which so many facts point, we inferred that a like transition from unity to variety of distribution, must have been undergone by our Solar System; as well as by that vast assemblage of such systems constituting the visible Universe. This definition of the metamorphosis, first asserted by physiologists of organic aggregates only, but which we thus found reason to think, holds of all other aggregates, proved on further inquiry to be too wide. Its undue width was shown to arise from the omission of certain other characteristics, that are, not less than the foregoing one, displayed throughout all kinds of Evolution. We saw that simultaneously with the change from homogeneity to heterogeneity, there takes place a change from indefiniteness of arrangement to definiteness of arrangement – a change everywhere equally traceable with that which it accompanies. Further consideration made it apparent, that the increasing definiteness thus manifested along with increasing heterogeneity, necessarily results from increasing integration of the parts severally rendered unlike. And thus we finally reached the conclusion, that there has been going on throughout an immeasurable past, is still going on, and will continue to go on, an advance from a diffused, indeterminate, and uniform distribution of Matter, to a concentrated, determinate, and multiform distribution of it.

At a subsequent stage of our inquiry, we discovered that this progressive change in the arrangement of Matter, is accompanied by a parallel change in the arrangement of Motion – that every increase in the structural complexity of things, involves a corresponding increase in their functional complexity. It was shown that along with the integration of molecules into masses, there arises an integration of molecular motion into the motion of masses; and that as fast as there results variety in the sizes and forms of aggregates and their relations to incident forces, there also results variety in their movements. Whence it became manifest, that the general process of things is from a confused simplicity to an orderly complexity, in the distribution of both Matter and Motion.

It was pointed out, however, that though this species of transformation is universal, in the sense of holding throughout all classes of phenomena, it is not universal in the sense of being continued without limit in all classes of phenomena. Those aggregates which exhibit the entire change from uniformity to multiformity of structure and function, in comparatively short periods, eventually show us a reverse set of changes: Evolution is followed by Dissolution. The differentiations and integrations of Matter and Motion, finally reach a degree which the conditions do not allow them to pass; and there then sets in a process of disintegration and assimilation, of both the parts and the movements that were before growing more united and more distinct.

But under one or the other of these processes, all observable modifications in the arrangement of things may be classed. Every change comes under the head of integration or disintegration, material or dynamical; or under the head of differentiation or assimilation, material or dynamical; or under both. Each inorganic mass is either undergoing increase by the combination with it of surrounding elements for which its parts have affinity; or undergoing decrease by the solvent and abraiding action of surrounding elements; or both one and the other in varied succession and combination. By perpetual additions and losses of heat, it is having its parts temporarily differentiated from each other, or temporarily assimilated to each other, in molecular state. And through the actions of divers agents, it is also undergoing certain permanent molecular re-arrangements; rendering it either more uniform or more multiform in structure. These opposite kinds of change, thus vaguely typified in every surrounding fragment of matter, are displayed in all aggregates with increasing distinctness in proportion as the conditions essential to re-arrangement of parts are fulfilled. So that universally, the process of things is either in the one direction or the other. There is in all cases going on that ever-complicating distribution of Matter and Motion which we call Evolution; save in those cases where it has been brought to a close and reversed by what we call Dissolution.

§ 140. Whether this omnipresent metamorphosis admits of interpretation, was the inquiry on which we next entered. Recognizing the changes thus formulated as consisting in Motions of Matter that are produced by Force, we saw that if they are interpretable at all, it must be by the affiliation of them on certain ultimate laws of Matter, Motion, and Force. We therefore proceeded to inquire what these ultimate laws are.

We first contemplated under its leading aspects, the principle of correlation and equivalence among forces. The genesis of sensible motion by insensible motion, and of insensible motion by sensible motion, as well as the like reciprocal production of those forms of insensible motion which constitute Light, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism, and Chemical Action, was shown to be a now accepted doctrine, that involves certain corollaries respecting the processes everywhere going on around us. Setting out with the probability that the insensible motion radiated by the Sun, is the transformed product of the sensible motion lost during the progressive concentration of the solar mass; we saw that by this insensible motion, are in turn produced the various kinds of sensible motion on the Earth’s surface. Besides the inorganic terrestrial changes, we found that the changes constituting organic life are thus originated. We were obliged to conclude that within this category, come the vital phenomena classed as mental, as well as those classed as physical. And it appeared inevitably to follow that of social changes, too, the like must be said. We next saw that phenomena being cognizable by us only as products of Force, manifested under the two-fold form of attraction and repulsion, there results the general law that all Motion must occur in the direction of least resistance, or in the direction of greatest traction, or in the direction of their resultant. It was pointed out that this law is every instant illustrated in the movements of the celestial bodies. The innumerable transpositions of matter, gaseous, liquid, and solid, going on over the Earth’s surface, were shown to conform to it. Evidence was given that this same ultimate principle of motion underlies the structural and functional changes of organisms. Throughout the succession of those nervous actions which constitute thought and feeling, as also in the discharge of feeling into action, we no less found this principle conspicuous. Nor did we discover any exception to it in the movements, temporary and permanent, that go on in societies. From the universal coexistence of opposing forces, there also resulted the rhythm of motion. It was shown that this is displayed from the infinitesimal vibrations of molecules up to the enormous revolutions and gyrations of planets; that it is traceable throughout all meteorologic and geologic changes; that the functions of every organic body exemplify it in various forms; that mental activities too, intellectual and emotional, exhibit periodicities of sundry kinds; and that actions and reactions illustrating this law under a still more complex form, pervade social processes.

Such being the principles to which conform all changes produced by Force on the distribution of Matter, and all changes re-actively produced by Matter on the distribution of Force, we proceeded to inquire what must be the consequent nature of any re-distributions produced: having first noted the limiting conditions between which such re-distributions are possible, and the medium conditions that are most favourable to them. The first conclusion arrived at, was, that any finite homogeneous aggregate must inevitably lose its homogeneity, through the unequal exposure of its parts to incident forces. We observed how this was shown in surrounding things, by the habitual establishment of differences between inner and outer parts, and parts otherwise dissimilarly circumstanced. It was pointed out that the production of diversities of structure by forces acting under diverse conditions, has been illustrated in astronomic evolution, supposing such evolution to have taken place; and that a like connection of cause and effect is seen in the large and small modifications undergone by our globe. In the early changes of organic germs, we discovered further evidence that unlikenesses of structure follow unlikenesses of relations to surrounding agencies – evidence enforced by the tendency of the differently-placed members of each species to diverge into varieties. We found that the principle is also conformed to in the establishment of distinctions among our ideas; and that the contrasts, political and industrial, that arise between the parts of societies are no less in harmony with it. The instability of the homogeneous thus caused, and thus everywhere exemplified, we also saw must hold of the unlike parts into which any uniform whole lapses; and that so the less heterogeneous must tend continually to become more heterogeneous – an inference which we also found to be everywhere confirmed by fact. Carrying a step further our inquiry into these actions and reactions between Force and Matter, there was disclosed a secondary cause of increasing multiformity. Every differentiated part becomes, we found, a parent of further differentiations; not only in the sense that it must lose its own homogeneity in heterogeneity, but also in the sense that it must, in growing unlike other parts, become a centre of unlike reactions on incident forces; and by so adding to the diversity of forces at work, must add to the diversity of effects produced. This multiplication of effects, likewise proved to be manifest throughout all Nature. That forces modified in kind and direction by every part of every aggregate, are gradually expended in working changes that grow more numerous and more varied as the forces are subdivided, is shown in the actions and reactions going on throughout the Solar System, in the never-ceasing geologic complications, in the involved symptoms produced in organisms by disturbing influences, in the many thoughts and feelings generated by single impressions, and in the ever-ramifying results of each new agency brought to bear on a society. To which add the corollary, confirmed by abundant facts, that the multiplication of effects must increase in a geometrical progression, as the heterogeneity increases. Completely to interpret the structural changes constituting Evolution, there remained to assign a reason for that increasingly-distinct demarcation of parts, which accompanies the production of differences between parts. This reason we discovered to be, the segregation of mixed units under the action of forces capable of moving them. We saw that when the parts of an aggregate have been made qualitatively unlike by unlike incident forces – that is, when they have become contrasted in the natures of their component units; there necessarily arises a tendency to separation of the dissimilar orders of units from each other, and to aggregation of those units which are similar. This cause of the integration that accompanies differentiation, turned out to be likewise exemplified by all kinds of Evolution – by the formation of celestial bodies, by the moulding of the Earth’s crust, by organic modifications, by the establishment of mental distinctions, by the genesis of social divisions. And we inferred, what we may everywhere see, that the segregation thus produced goes on so long as there remains a possibility of making it more complete. At length, to the query whether the processes thus traced out have any limit, there came the answer that they must end in equilibration. That continual division and subdivision of forces, which is instrumental in changing the uniform into the multiform and the multiform into the more multiform, we saw to be at the same time a process by which force is perpetually dissipated; and that dissipation, continuing as long as there remains any force unbalanced by an opposing force, must end in rest. It was shown that when, as happens with aggregates of various orders, a number of movements are going on in combination, the earlier dispersion of the smaller and more resisted movements, entails the establishment of different kinds of moving equilibria: forming transitional stages on the way to complete equilibrium. And further inquiry made it apparent that for the same reason, these moving equilibria have a certain self-conserving power; shown in the neutralization of perturbations, and the adjustment to new conditions. This general principle, like the preceding ones, proved to be traceable throughout all forms of Evolution – astronomic, geologic, biologic, mental and social. And our concluding inference was, that the penultimate stage of this process, in which the extremest degree of multiformity and completest form of moving equilibrium is established, must be one implying the highest conceivable state of humanity.

Thus it became apparent that this transformation of on indefinite, incoherent homogeneity into a definite coherent heterogeneity, which goes on everywhere, until it brings about a reverse transformation, is consequent on certain simple laws of force. Given those universal modes of action which are from moment to moment illustrated in the commonest changes around us, and it follows that there cannot but result the observed metamorphosis of an indeterminate uniformity into a determinate multiformity.

§ 141. Finally, we have asked whether, for these universal modes of action, any common cause is assignable – whether these wide truths are dependent on any single widest truth. And to this question we found a positive answer. These several principles are corollaries from that primordial principle which transcends human intelligence by underlying it.

In the first part of this work it was shown, by analysis of both our religious and our scientific ideas, that while knowledge of the cause which produces effects on our consciousness is impossible, the existence of a cause for these effects is a datum of consciousness. Though Being is cognizable by us only under limits of Time and Space, yet Being without limits of Time and Space was proved to be the indefinite cognition forming the necessary basis of our definite cognitions. We saw that the belief in an Omnipresent Power of which no commencement or cessation can be conceived, is that fundamental element in Religion which survives all its changes of form. We saw that all Philosophies avowedly or tacitly recognize this same ultimate truth: – that while the Relativist rightly repudiates those definite assertions which the Absolutist makes respecting real existence, he is yet at last compelled to unite with him in predicating real existence. And this inexpugnable consciousness in which Religion and Philosophy are at one with Common Sense, proved to be likewise that on which all exact Science is founded. We found that subjective Science can give no account of those conditioned modes of existence which constitute consciousness, without postulating unconditioned existence. And we found that objective Science can give no account of the existence which we know as external, without regarding its changes of form as manifestations of an existence that continues constant under all forms. Absolute Being, or Being which persists without beginning or end, was shown to be the common datum of all human thought; for the sufficient reason that the consciousness of it cannot be suppressed, without the suppression of consciousness itself.