Kitabı oku: «Studies in the Theory of Descent, Volume II», sayfa 4

Incongruences of this last kind appear in certain cases within families (Nymphalidæ), but I will not now subject these to closer analysis, because their causes will appear more clearly when subsequently considering the orders Hymenoptera and Diptera. Incongruences of the first kind, however, admit of a clear explanation in the case of butterflies. They appear most distinctly in the groups composed of families.

Nobody has as yet been able to establish the group Rhopalocera by means of any single character common to the larvæ; nevertheless, this group in the imagines is the sharpest and best defined of the whole order. If we inform the merest tyro that clubbed antennæ are the chief character of the butterflies, he will never hesitate in assigning one of these insects to its correct group. Such a typical character, common to all families, is, however, absent in the larvæ; and it might be correctly said that there were no Rhopalocerous larvæ, or rather that there were only larvæ of Equites, Nymphales, and Heliconii. The larvæ of the various families can be readily separated by means of characteristic distinctions, and it would not be difficult for an adept to distinguish to this extent in single cases a Rhopalocerous caterpillar as such; but these larvæ possess only family characters, and not those of a higher order.

This incongruence partly depends upon the circumstance that the form-divergence between a Rhopalocerous and a Heterocerous family is much greater on the side of the imagines than on that of the larvæ. Were there but a single family of butterflies in existence, such as the Equites, we should be obliged to elevate this to the rank of a sub-order on the side of the imagines, but not on that of the larvæ. Such cases actually occur, and an instance of this kind will be mentioned later in connection with the Diptera. But this alone does not explain why, on the side of the imagines, a whole series of families show the same amount of morphological divergence from the families of other groups. There are two things, therefore, which must here be explained: – First, why is the form-divergence between the imagines of the Rhopalocera and Heterocera greater than that between their larvæ? and, secondly, why can the imagines of the Rhopalocera be formed into one large group by means of common characters whilst the larvæ cannot?

The answers to both these questions can easily be given from our present standpoint. As far as the first question is concerned, this finds its solution in the fact that the form-divergence always corresponds exactly with the divergence of function, i. e. with the divergence in the mode of life.

If we compare a butterfly with a moth there can be no doubt that the difference in the conditions of life is far greater on the side of the imagines than on that of the larvæ. The differences in the mode of life of the larvæ are on the whole but very small. They are all vegetable feeders, requiring large quantities of food, and can only cease feeding during a short time, for which reason they never leave their food-plants for long, and it is of more importance for them to remain firmly attached than to be able to run rapidly. It is unnecessary for them to seek long for their food, as they generally find themselves amidst an abundance, and upon this depends the small development of their eyes and other organs of sense. On the whole caterpillars live under very uniform conditions, although these may vary in manifold details.

The greatest difference in the mode of life which occurs amongst Lepidopterous larvæ is shown by wood feeders. But even these, which by their constant exclusion from light, the hardness of their food, their confinement within narrow hard-walled galleries, and by the peculiar kind of movement necessitated by these galleries, are so differently situated in many particulars to those larvæ which live openly on plants, have not experienced any general change in the typical conformation of the body by adaptation to these conditions of life. These larvæ, which, as has already been mentioned, belong to the most diverse families, are more or less colourless and flattened, and have very strong jaws and small feet; but in none of them do we find a smaller number of segments, or any disappearance, or important transformation of the typical limbs; they all without exception possess sixteen legs, like the other larvæ excepting the Geometræ.

Now if even under the most widely diverging conditions of life adaptation of form is produced by relatively small, and to a certain extent superficial, changes, we should expect less typical transformations in the great majority of caterpillars which live on the exterior of plants or in their softer parts (most of the Micro-lepidoptera). The great diversity in the forms of caterpillars depends essentially upon a different formation of the skin and its underlying portions. The skin is sometimes naked, and can then acquire the most diverse colours, either protective or conspicuous, or it may develop offensive or defensive markings; in other cases it may be covered with hairs which sting, or with spines which prick; certain of its glands may develop to an enormous size, and acquire brilliant colours and the power of emitting stinking secretions (the tentacles of the Papilionidæ and Cuspidate larvæ); by the development of warts, angles, humps, &c., any species of caterpillar may be invested with the most grotesque shape, the significance of which with respect to the life of the insect is as yet in most cases by no means clear: typical portions are not, however, essentially influenced by these manifold variations. At most only the form of the individual segments of the body, and with these the shape of the whole insect, become changed (onisciform larvæ of Lycænidæ), but a segment is never suppressed, and even any considerable lengthening of the legs occurs but very seldom (Stauropus Fagi).²⁴

We may therefore fairly assert that the structure of larvæ is on the whole remarkably uniform, in consequence of the uniformity in the conditions of life. Notwithstanding the great variety of external aspects, the general structure of caterpillars does not become changed – it is only their outward garb which varies, sometimes in one direction, and sometimes in another, and which, starting from inherited characters, becomes adapted to the various special conditions of life in the best possible manner.

All this is quite different in the case of the imagines, where we meet with very important differences in the conditions of life. The butterflies, which live under the influence of direct sunlight and a much higher temperature, and which are on the wing for a much longer period during the day, must evidently be differently equipped to the moths in their motor organs (wings), degree of hairiness, and in the development of their eyes and other organs of sense. It is true that we are not at present in a condition to furnish special proofs that the individual organs of butterflies are exactly adapted to a diurnal life, but we may safely draw this general conclusion from the circumstance that no butterfly is of nocturnal habits.²⁵ It cannot be stated in objection that there are many moths which fly by day. It certainly appears that no great structural change is necessary to confer upon a Lepidopteron organized for nocturnal life the power of also flying by day; but this proves nothing against the view that the structure of the butterflies depends upon adaptation to a diurnal life. Analogous cases are known to occur in many other groups of animals. Thus, the decapodous Crustacea are obviously organized for an aquatic life; but there are some crabs which take long journeys by land. Fish appear no less to be exclusively adapted to live in water; nevertheless the “climbing-perch” (Anabas) can live for hours on land.

It is not the circumstance that some of the moths fly by day which is extraordinary and demands a special explanation, but the reverse fact just mentioned, that no known butterfly flies by night. We may conclude from this that the organization of the latter is not adapted to a nocturnal life.

If we assume²⁶ that the Lepidopterous family adapted to a diurnal life gives rise in the course of time to a nocturnal family, there can be no doubt but that the transformation of structure would be far greater on the part of the imagines than on that of the larvæ. The latter would not remain quite unchanged – not because their imagines had taken to a nocturnal life which for the larva would be quite immaterial, but because this change could only occur very gradually in the course of a large number of generations, and during this long period the conditions of life would necessarily often change with respect to the larvæ. It has been shown above that within the period of time necessary for the formation of a new species impulses to change occur on both sides; how much more numerous therefore must these be in the case of a group of much higher rank, for the establishment of which a considerably longer period is required. In the case assumed, therefore, the larvæ would also change, but they would suffer much smaller transformations than the imagines. Whilst in the latter almost all the typical portions of the body would undergo deep changes in consequence of the entirely different conditions of life, the larvæ would perhaps only change in marking, hairs, bristles, or other external characters, the typical parts experiencing only unimportant modifications.

In this manner it can easily be understood why the larvæ of a family of Noctuæ do not differ to a greater extent from those of a family of butterflies than do the latter from some other Rhopalocerous family, or why the imagines of a Rhopalocerous and a Heterocerous family present much greater form-divergences than their larvæ. At the same time is therefore explained the unequal value that must be attributed to any single family of butterflies in its larvæ and in its imagines. The unequal form-divergences coincide exactly with the inequalities in the conditions of life.

When whole families of butterflies show the same structure in their typical parts (antennæ, wings, &c.), and, what is of more importance, can be separated as a systematic group of a higher order (i. e. as a section or sub-order) from the other Lepidoptera whilst their larval families do not appear to be connected by any common character, the cause of this incongruence lies simply in the circumstance that the imagines live under some peculiar conditions which are common to them all, but which do not recur in other Lepidopterous groups. Their larvæ live in precisely the same manner as those of all the other families of Lepidoptera – they do not differ in their mode of life from those of the Heterocerous families to a greater extent than they do from one another.

We therefore see here a community of form within the same compass as that in which there is community in the conditions of life. In all butterflies such community is found in their diurnal habits, and in accordance with this we find that these only, and not their larvæ, can be formed into a group having common characters.

In the larvæ also we only find agreement in the conditions of life within a much wider compass, viz. within the whole order. Between the limits of the order Lepidoptera the conditions of life in the caterpillars are, as has just been shown, on the whole very uniform, and the structure of the larvæ accordingly agrees almost exactly in all Lepidopterous families in every essential, i. e. typical, part.

In this way is explained the hitherto incomprehensible phenomenon that the sub-ordinal group Rhopalocera cannot be based on the larvæ, but that Lepidopterous caterpillars can as a whole be associated into a higher group (order); they constitute altogether families and an order, but not the intermediate group of a sub-order. By this means we at the same time reply to an objection that may be raised, viz. that larval forms cannot be formed into high systematic groups because of their “low and undeveloped” organization.

To this form of incongruence, viz. to the formation of systematic groups of unequal value and magnitude, I must attach the greatest weight with respect to theoretical considerations. I maintain that this, as I have already briefly indicated above, is wholly incompatible with the admission of a phyletic force. How is it conceivable that such a power could work in the same organism in two entirely different directions – that it should in the same species lead to the constitution of quite different systems for the larvæ and for the imagines, or that it should lead only to the formation of families in the larvæ and to sub-orders in the imagines? If an internal force existed which had a tendency to call into existence certain groups of animal forms of such a nature that these constituted one harmonious whole of which the components bore to one another fixed morphological relationships, it would certainly have been an easy matter for such a power to have given to the larvæ of butterflies some small character which would have distinguished them as such, and which would in some measure have impressed them with the stamp of “Rhopalocera.” Of such a character we find no trace however; on the contrary, everything goes to show that the transformations of the organic world result entirely from external influences.

III. Incongruences in other Orders of Insects

Although the order Lepidoptera is for many reasons especially favourable for an investigation such as that undertaken in the previous section, it will nevertheless be advantageous to inquire into the form-relationships of the two chief stages in some other orders of metamorphic insects, and to investigate whether in these cases the formation of systematic groups also coincides with common conditions of life.

Hymenoptera

In this order there cannot be the least doubt as to the form-relationship of the imagines. The characteristic combination of the pro- and meso-thorax, the number and venation of the wings, and the mouth-organs formed for biting and licking, are found throughout the whole order, and leave no doubt that the Hymenoptera are well based on their imaginal characters.

But it is quite different with the larvæ. It may be boldly asserted that the order would never have been founded if the larvæ only had been known. Two distinct larval types here occur, the one – caterpillar-like – possessing a distinct horny head provided with the typical masticatory organs of insects, and a body having thirteen segments, to which, in addition to a variable number of abdominal legs, there are always attached three pairs of horny thoracic legs: the other type is maggot-shaped, without the horny head, and is entirely destitute of mouth-organs, or at least of the three pairs of typical insect jaws, and is also without abdominal and thoracic legs. The number of segments is extremely variable; the larvæ of the saw-flies have thirteen besides the head, the maggot-shaped larvæ of bees possess fourteen segments altogether, and the gall-flies and ichneumons only twelve or ten. We should be much mistaken also if we expected to find connecting characters in the internal organs. The intestine is quite different in the two types of larvæ, the posterior opening being absent in the maggot-like grubs; at most only the tracheal and nervous systems show a certain agreement, but this is not complete.

The order Hymenoptera, precisely speaking and conceived only morphologically, exists therefore but in the imagines; in the larvæ there exist only the caterpillar- and maggot-formed groups. The former shows a great resemblance to Lepidopterous larvæ, and in the absence of all knowledge of the further development it might be attempted to unite them with these into one group. The two certainly differ in certain details of structure in the mouth-organs and in the number of segments, abdominal legs, &c., to a sufficient extent to warrant their being considered as two sub-orders of one larval order; but they would in any case be regarded as much more nearly related in form than the caterpillar- and maggot-like types of the Hymenopterous larvæ.

Is it not conceivable, however, that the imagines of the Hymenoptera – that ichneumons and wasps may be only accidentally alike, and that they have in fact arisen from quite distinct ancestral forms, the one having proceeded with the Lepidopterous caterpillars from one root, and the other with the grub-like Dipterous larvæ from another root?

This is certainly not the case; the common characters are too deep-seated to allow the supposition that the resemblance is here only superficial. From the structure of the imagines alone the common origin of all the Hymenoptera may be inferred with great probability. This would be raised into a certainty if we could demonstrate the phyletic development of the maggot-formed out of the caterpillar-formed Hymenopterous larvæ by means of the ontogeny of the former. From the beautiful investigations of Bütschli on the embryonic development of bees²⁷ we know that the embryo of the grub possesses a complete head, consisting of four segments and provided with the three typical pairs of jaws. These head segments do not subsequently become formed into a true horny head, but shrivel up; whilst the jaws disappear with the exception of the first pair, which are retained in the form of soft processes with small horny points. We know also that from the three foremost segments of the embryo the three typical pairs of legs are developed in the form of round buds, just as they first appear in all insects.²⁸ These rudimentary limbs undergo complete degeneration before the birth of the larva, as also do those of the whole²⁹ of the remaining segments, which, even in this primitive condition, show a small difference to the three foremost rudimentary legs.

The grub-like larvæ of the Hymenoptera have therefore descended from forms which possessed a horny head with antennæ and three pairs of gnathites and a 13-segmented body, of which the three foremost segments were provided with legs differing somewhat from those of the other segments; that is to say, they have descended from larvæ which possessed a structure generally similar to that of the existing saw-fly larvæ. The common derivation of all the Hymenoptera from one source is thus established with certainty.³⁰

But upon what does this great inequality in the form-relationship of the larvæ and imagines depend? The existing maggot-like grubs are without doubt much further removed from the active caterpillar-like larvæ than are the saw-flies from the Aculeate Hymenoptera. Whilst these two groups differ only through various modifications of the typical parts (limbs, &c.), their larvæ are separable by much deeper-seated distinctions; limbs of typical importance entirely vanish in the one group, but in the other attain to complete development.

In the Hymenoptera there exists therefore a very considerable incongruence in the systems based morphologically, i. e. on the pure form-relationships of the larvæ and of the imagines. The reason of this is not difficult to find: the conditions of life differ much less in the case of the imagines than in that of the larvæ. In the former the conditions of life are similar in their broad features. Hymenoptera live chiefly in the air and fly by day, and in their mode of obtaining food do not present any considerable differences. Their larvæ, on the other hand, live under almost diametrically opposite conditions. Those of the saw-flies live after the manner of caterpillars upon or in plants, in both cases their peculiar locomotion being adapted for the acquisition and their masticatory organs for the reduction of food. The larvæ of the other Hymenoptera, however, do not as a rule require any means of locomotion for reaching nor any organs of mastication for swallowing their food, since they are fed in cells, like the bees and wasps, or grow up in plant galls of which they suck the juice, or are parasitic on other insects by whose blood they are nourished. We can readily comprehend that in the whole of this last group the legs should disappear, that the jaws should likewise vanish or should become diminished to one pair retained in a much reduced condition, that the horny casing of the head, the surface of attachment of the muscles of the jaws, should consequently be lost, and that even the segments of the head itself should become more or less shrivelled up as the organs of sense therein located became suppressed.

The incongruence manifests itself however in yet another manner than by the relatively greater morphological divergence of the larvæ: a different grouping is possible for the larvæ and for the imagines. If we divide the Hymenoptera simply according to the form-relationships of the imagines, the old division into the two sub-orders Terebrantia or Ditrocha and Aculeata or Monotrocha will be the most correct. The distinguishing characters of a sting or ovipositor and a one- or two-jointed trochanter are still of the greatest value. But these two sub-orders do not by any means correspond with the two types of larvæ since, in the Terebrantia, there occur families with both caterpillar-formed and maggot-formed larvæ.

The cause is to be found in that a portion of these families possess larvæ which are parasitic in other insects or in galls, their bodily structure having by these means become transformed in a quite different direction. The mode of life of the imagines is, on the other hand, essentially the same.

We have here therefore another case like that which we met with among the Rhopalocerous Lepidoptera, in which the imagines appear to be capable of being formed into a higher group than the larvæ, because the former live under conditions of life which are on the whole similar whilst the latter live under very divergent conditions.

The old division of the Hymenoptera into two sub-orders has certainly been abandoned in the later zoological text-books; they are now divided into three: – saw-flies, parasitic, and aculeate Hymenoptera; but even this arrangement has been adopted with reference to the different structure of the larvæ. Whether this system is better than the older, i. e. whether it better expresses the genealogical relationship, I will not now stop to investigate.³¹

DIPTERA

The imagines of the Diptera (genuina), with the exception of the Aphaniptera and Pupipara, agree in all their chief characters, such as the number and structure of the wings, the number and joints of the legs, the peculiar formation of the thorax (fusion of the three segments);³² and even the structure of the mouth organs varies only within narrow limits. This is in accordance with their mode of life, which is very uniform in its main features: all the true Diptera live in the light, moving chiefly by means of flight, but having also the power of running; all those which take food in the imago condition feed upon fluids. Their larvæ, on the other hand, are formed on two essentially different types, the one – which I shall designate as the gnat-type – possessing a horny head with eyes, three pairs of jaws, and long or short antennæ, together with a 12- or 13-segmented body, which is never provided with the three typical pairs of thoracic legs, but frequently has the so-called abdominal legs on the first and last segments. The other Dipterous larvæ are maggot-shaped and without a horny head, or in fact without any head, since the first segment, the homologue of the head, can in no case be distinguished through its being larger than the others; it is on the contrary much smaller. The typical insect mouth-parts are entirely absent, being replaced by a variously formed and quite peculiar arrangement of hooks situated on the mouth and capable of protrusion. Never more than eleven segments are present besides the first, which is destitute of eyes; neither are abdominal legs ever developed.

The mode of life differs very considerably in the two groups of larvæ. Although the Dipterous maggots are not as a rule quite incapable of locomotion like the grubs of the Hymenoptera (bees, ichneumons), the majority are nevertheless possessed of but little power of movement in the food-substance on which they were deposited as eggs. They do not go in search of food, either because they are parasitic in other insects in the same manner as the ichneumons (Tachina), or else they live on decaying animal or vegetable substances or amidst large swarms of their prey, like the larvæ of the Syrphidæ amongst Aphides. They generally undergo pupation in the same place as that which they inhabit as larvæ and indeed in their larval skin which hardens into an oval pupa-case. Some few leave their feeding place and pupate after traversing a short distance (Eristalis).

As in the case of the Hymenoptera the structure of the larvæ can here also be explained by peculiarities in their mode of life. Creatures which live in a mass of food neither require special organs of locomotion nor specially developed organs of sense (eyes). They have no use for the three pairs of jaws since they only feed on liquid substances, and the hooks within the mouth do not serve for the reduction of food but only for fastening the whole body. With the jaws and their muscular system there likewise disappears the necessity for a hard surface of attachment, i. e. a corneous head.

The mode of life of the larvæ of the gnat-type is quite different in most points. The majority, and indeed the most typically formed of these, have to go in search of their food, whether they are predaceous, such as the Culicidæ and many of the other Nemocera (Corethra, Simulium), or whether they feed on plants, which they in some cases weave into a protective dwelling tube (certain species of Chironomus). Many live in water and move with great rapidity; others bury in the earth or in vegetable substances; and even those species which live on fungi sometimes wander great distances, as in the well-known case of the “army worm” where thousands of the larvæ of Sciara Thomæ thus migrate.

Now the two types of larvæ correspond generally with the two large groups into which, as it appears to me correctly, the Diptera (genuina) are as a rule divided. In this respect there is therefore an equality of form-relationship – the grouping is the same, and the incongruence depends only upon the form-divergence between the two kinds of larvæ being greater than between the two kinds of imagines.³³

That the form-divergence is greater in the larvæ than in the imagines cannot be doubted; that this distant form-relationship cannot, however, be referred to a very remote common origin, i. e. to a very remote blood-relationship, not only appears from the existence of transition-forms between the two sub-orders, but can be demonstrated here, as in the case of the Hymenoptera, by the embryonic development of the maggot-like larvæ.

Seventeen years ago I showed³⁴ that the grub-formed larvæ of the Muscidæ in the embryonic state possessed a well-developed head with antennæ and three pairs of jaws, but that later in the course of the embryonic development a marked reduction and transformation of these parts takes place, so that finally the four head segments appear as a single small ring formed from the coalesced pairs of maxillæ, whilst the so-called “fore-head” (the first head segment), together with the mandibles, becomes transformed into a suctorial-head armed with hooks and lying within the body. At the time of writing I drew no conclusion from these facts with reference to the phyletic development of these larval forms; nor did Bütschli, six years later, in the precisely analogous case of the larvæ of the bees. The inference is, however, so obvious that it is astonishing that it should not have been drawn till the present time.³⁵

There can be no doubt that the maggot-like larvæ of insects are not by any means ancient forms, but are, on the contrary, quite recent, as first pointed out by Fritz Müller,³⁶ and afterwards by Packard³⁷ and Brauer,³⁸ and as is maintained in the latest work by Paul Mayer³⁹ on the phylogeny of insects.

The Dipterous maggots have evidently descended from a larval form which possessed a horny head with antennæ and three pairs of jaws, but which had no appendages to the abdominal segments; they are therefore ordinary Dipterous larvæ of the gnat-type which have become modified in a quite peculiar manner and adapted to a new mode of life, just as the grubs of the Hymenoptera are larvæ of the saw-fly type, which have become similarly transformed, although by no means in the same manner. The resemblance between the two types of larva is to a great extent purely external, and depends upon the process designated “convergence” by Oscar Schmidt, i. e. upon the adaptation of heterogeneous animal forms to similar conditions of life. By adaptation to a life within a mass of fluid nutriment, the caterpillar-formed larvæ of the Hymenoptera and the Tipula-like larvæ of the Diptera have acquired a similar external appearance, and many similarities in internal structure, or, in brief, have attained to a considerable degree of form-relationship, which would certainly have tended to conceal the wide divergence in blood-relationship did not the embryological forms on the one side and the imagines on the other provide us with an explanation.

It is certainly of great interest that in another order of insects – the Coleoptera – grub-formed larvæ occur quite irregularly, and their origin can be here traced to precisely the same conditions of life as those which have produced the grubs of bees. I refer to the honey-devouring larvæ of the Meloïdæ (Meloë, Sitaris, Cantharis). The case is the more instructive, inasmuch that the six-legged larval form is not yet relegated to the development within the egg, but is retained in the first larval stage. In the second larval stage the maggot-form is first assumed, although this is certainly not so well pronounced as in the Diptera or Hymenoptera, as neither the head nor the thoracic legs are so completely suppressed as in these orders. Nevertheless, these parts have made a great advance in the process of transformation.