Kitabı oku: «A Brief History of Forestry.», sayfa 19

FINLAND

The Grand Duchy of Finland in the northeast of Russia is still in some respects independent of Russia.

Finland, the “land of a thousand lakes” and of most extensive forests, is hardly less important as a wood producer than Russia itself; its wood exports amounting at present to around 200 million cubic feet and over 25 million dollars in value, represent over 50 per cent. of its trade, and its most important resource.

Settled in the 7th century by an Aryan tribe, the Finns, congeners of the Magyars, who subdued the aboriginal Laplanders, Finland became by conquest in the 12th century, and remained for 500 years, a province of Sweden. In the wars between Sweden and Russia; parts of this province were conquered by Russia, and finally, in 1809, Sweden lost the whole; but the Finns succeeded in preserving national unity and partial independence under a constitution, adopted in 1772 and recognized by the Czar.

Finland stands very much in the same relation to Russia as does Hungary to Austria, the union being merely a personal one: the Czar is the ruler or Grand Duke, but the administration is otherwise largely separate from that of the empire, under a Governor-General, appointed by the Czar, and a Senate of 18 members at Helsingfors, with a national parliament of the four estates, nobles, clergy, burgers, peasants, which convenes every five years; the Czar having the veto power over its legislation. The War Department of Russia, however, is in charge of military affairs, and other departments seem to be under more or less supervision of the Russian administration. Lately repressive measures are threatening or have nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy.

Of the 145,000 square miles of territory, nearly 50 % is occupied by lakes and bogs, marshes or tundra; less than 9 million acres (9.7 %) is in farms, and 37.5 million acres or 42 %, is forestland, actual or potential; The major part of this is located in the northern and eastern sections, where the population is scanty, agriculture little developed, and sand soils prevail. Beyond the 69th degree, forest growth ceases, and naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth partakes of the character of all northern forests. Not more than 2.5 million acres, mostly in the southwestern sections, are actually under cultivation; the population being short of 2.5 million.

The rigorous climate makes a large consumption of fuelwood necessary, and, since houses are also mostly built of wood, the home consumption is over 32 cubic feet per capita. Over 10 million cubic feet of pine are consumed in making tar, and a like amount for paper pulp. The total cut is in the neighborhood of 370 million cubic feet, four-fifth of which comes from private forests of the middle and southern area, and over one-third of it is being exported.

The country generally is a tableland with occasional low hills. The forest consists principally of pine, the latter a variety of the Scotch Pine (or species?), called Riga Pine which excels in straightness of bole and thrifty growth, and of spruce (10 per cent. of the whole, mainly in the southeast). Aspen, alder and birch, especially the latter, are considered undesirable weeds, and fire is used to get rid of them where coniferous aftergrowth is desired, although birch is also employed for fuel, bobbins and furniture, and aspen for matches. Basswood, maple, elm, ash and some oak occur, and larch (Larix sibirica) was introduced some 150 years ago.

Long, severe winters and hot, dry summers produce slow growth, the pine in the north requiring 200 to 250 years, in the middle sections 140 to 160 years to grow to merchantable size.

Fires, used in clearing, have from time to time run over large areas and have nearly killed out the spruce except in the lowlands, but the pine being more resistant has increased its area and in spite of the deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well.

Originally the forest was communal property, but in 1524, Gustav Vasa declared all forest and water not specially occupied to belong to “God, King and the Swedish Crown,” although he allowed the usufruct to the people free of charge or nearly so. These rights of user are still the bane of the forest administration. Being left without supervision it mattered little who owned the land, the forest was ruthlessly exploited. Later, the rights of user thus originating were bought off by ceding lands to the peasants.

Not until 1851 did an improvement in these conditions occur when a provisional administration of the State forests was provided in connection with the Land Survey; but a rational organization materialized only after an eminent German forester, v. Berg, Director of the forest school of Tharandt, had been imported (1858) to effect a reconstruction. His advice was, however, only partially followed, and the organization was not perfected until 1869.

Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the administration developed, because it could not at once show increased profits, and the personnel which had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the large districts into which the State property had been divided were still further enlarged, and to this day, improvement in these respects has been only partial.

The State forest area, situated mainly in the north is stated as between 35 and 45 million acres (variable because of clearing for farms and new settlements), but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors and much other waste land, which reduces the productive forest area to about 12 million acres (35 %), leaving 65 % of the productive forest area to private ownership.

This State forest was divided (1896) into 53 districts, the districts being aggregated into 8 inspections, and the whole service placed under a central office with a forest director and 5 assistants under immediate control of the Senate. The forest guards numbered 750, their ranges averaging 50,000 acres, while the districts average 600,000 acres and several contain as high as 2.5 million acres; the Forstmeister in charge may live sometimes 200 miles from the nearest town and 60 miles from the nearest road. His function is mainly to protect the property, to supervise the cutting and sales, and to teach the people the need of conservative methods. In spite of this insufficient service, considerable reduction in forest fires and theft has been attained.

Beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire, and conservative lumbering of the State forest, positive measures for reproduction have hardly yet been introduced, both personnel and wood values being insufficient for more intensive management.

At present, with a cut hardly exceeding 100 million cubic feet, the revenue is still almost nominal, say $600,000, and hardly the annual growth is cut.

Selection forest is, of course, the rule, but since no trees are marked and cut less than 10 inch diameter at 25 feet from the ground (!), at least the possibility for improved management will not be destroyed when, through the exhaustion of the private forests and increased wood prices, more intensive management has become practicable.

When the market is good, a clearing system with 100 to 160 year rotation is practised; on the clearings about 20 seed trees are left, and after 6 years the natural regeneration is repaired by planting.

This latter method is especially prescribed on the government farms. These form an interesting part of the State property, some 900 small farms with woodlots aggregating over 500,000 acres, mostly in the southern districts. These came into existence in the 17th and 18th centuries, being granted as fiefs to officers of the army as their only compensation. They reverted to the State and are rented for terms of 50 years upon condition that the woods are to be managed according to rules laid down by the State department; and special inspectors are provided to supervise this work. This system, in vogue since 1863, at first met with opposition on the part of the renters on account of the impractical propositions of the department. At present the department manages many of these woodlots directly, as well as those which the clergy have received in lieu of emoluments.

Since 1883, a corps of forest surveyors has been occupied in making working plans based upon diameter accretion at the curiously selected height of 25 feet from the ground. A commission was also instituted some years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in the State domain with a view of disposing of the latter preparatory to improved management of the remaining forest area.

The State has also in a small way begun to purchase absolute forest soils in the southern provinces with a view to reforestation.

The private forest areas, located in the more settled southern portions are found mostly in small parcels and in peasants’ hands, although the nobility also owns some forest properties, but the size of single holdings rarely exceeds 1,000 acres. These areas are mostly exploited without regard to the future, furnishing still four-fifths of the large export, and according to competent judges will soon be exhausted.

Although attempts have been made from time to time to restrict the use of private forest, practically little has been accomplished, and such restrictions as have been enacted are hardly enforced.

A law, enacted in 1886, forbids clearing along waters adapted to fishing, and orders the leaving of seed trees or “providing otherwise for regeneration,” if more than 12 acres are cut at one time.

The method of utilizing the ground for combined forest and farm use, which is still frequently practised, was forbidden on the light sandy soils of the pineries, or was otherwise regulated. Forest fire laws are also on the statutes.

Propositions for further restrictions, made in 1891, were promptly rejected by the parliament.

Educational opportunities are offered in the Forest Institute at Evois, first established in 1862 as a result of v. Berg’s visit, and re-organized in 1874. It accepts new students only every second year for the two years’ course. It has had a precarious existence, being left sometimes without students, and is naturally not of a high grade, practical acquaintance with woodswork being its main aim.

Since 1876, a school for forest guards and private underforesters has been in existence, where 6 students are annually accepted for a two years’ course.

In addition there are two instructors provided by the government, wandering teachers who are to advise private owners. Premiums are paid for the best managed woodlots on the government farms.

The Finnish forestry association, which is in part of propagandist nature, was organized in 1877. It supplies, besides an annual report, other forestry literature, and employs an experienced planter to direct efforts at reforestation.

A forestry journal (quarterly) is also published, and a professional literature is beginning to start into existence.

It may be of interest in this connection to cite a rough calculation made by Dr. Mayr of the available material in European Russia and Finland combined, which he places at 4,500 million cubic feet, and of which he considers one-half available for export.

It is impossible to prognosticate what position Russia and Finland, together the largest wood producers in Europe, will take in the future world commerce, and how rapidly better practices, for which the machinery is already half started, will become generally adopted. At present, especially in Russia proper, the general corruption of the bureaucracy is an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement.

THE SCANDINAVIAN STATES

In the English language the Report on Forestry in Sweden, by Gen. C. C. Andrews, U. S. Minister at Stockholm, 1872, revised 1900, 35 pp., gives a statement of present conditions with historical notes.

A very good idea in detail of the wood trade of Sweden may be obtained from The Wood Industries of Sweden, published by TIMBER TRADES JOURNAL of London in 1896.

La Suède, son Peuple et son industrie, by G. Sundbarg, 1900, 2 vols., contains several pertinent chapters. It is an official work, very complete, and was translated into English in 1904.

The Economic History of the Swedish Forest, by Gunnar Schotte, 1905. 32 pp., in Swedish, published by the forestry association, gives a brief account of conditions and data of the forestry movement.

Norway. Official publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900, contains a chapter on Forestry by K. A. Fauchald, pp. 322-350, with a map of forest distribution.

Skogsvaesenets Historie ved Skogs direktoren, I Del, Historik, 1909, is an official publication of the Norwegian Forest administration, giving a full account of the development during the 50 years from 1857 to 1907, with notes of the earlier history.

Le Danemarc. Etat Actuel de sa civilization et de son organization sociale, by J. Carlsen, H. Olric and C. N. Starcke, 1900, 714 pp.

Denmark, its history and topography, etc., by H. Weitemeyer, 1891.

Bidrag til det Danske Skovbrugs Historie, by O. Lütken, 1900, was not accessible to the writer.

Extensive notes are found through the German, Austrian and French forestry journals. Especially an article in the Centralblatt für das gesammte Forstwesen, 1905 (briefed in Forestry Quarterly, vol. III, p. 292) and another (briefed in same Quarterly, vol. IX, p. 45) gives extended accounts of forest conditions in Sweden.

Under the name of Scandinavian States we may comprise the countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, which were settled by the same group of German tribes, the so-called Norsemen; they originally spoke the same language, which only later became more or less differentiated. The settlement of the country by these tribes seems to have been accomplished in the main by the end of the 8th century; and the separation into the three several kingdoms in the ninth to twelfth centuries, during which time they were sometimes united, or at least under one ruler, sometimes at war with each other, and always torn by interior dissensions bordering on anarchy.

In 1397, by the Calmar convention, a more permanent union into one kingdom was effected between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under Margaret, “the Semiramis of the North.” After another period of variable fortunes, Sweden, about 1523, became an independent constitutional monarchy under Gustav Vasa, and Norway remained joined to Denmark under Frederick I.

Sweden then started on a career of conquest, being almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and especially with Russia and Poland, whereby, especially under Gustavus Adolphus and the adventurous Charles XII, her territory was greatly enlarged. With the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt (1720 and 1721) she came into more peaceful waters, but permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained until the election of Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s administrators, to the kingship, and by the peace of Kiel, in 1814, Sweden became a constitutional hereditary monarchy in the modern sense. At the same time, Norway was taken away from Denmark and forced to a union with Sweden, which persisted until 1907, when a peaceful separation took place by the action of the Norwegian people. The union has always been hateful to the Norwegians, although only the king and the department of foreign affairs (in which Norway was represented by a delegation from its Council) were in common, all other matters of administration being separate as well as the parliaments (Storthing in Norway, and Riksdag in Sweden).

Denmark, powerful in the 11th century under Canute, who subjugated not only Norway but England, losing both these countries shortly after his death, was shorn by Sweden of much of its territory in the 17th century, and, in 1814, was separated from Norway. Originally an elective monarchy, largely dominated by the nobility, the crown in 1661 became hereditary and absolute, and Sweden did not become a constitutional monarchy until 1849.

SWEDEN

This country is of greatest interest to the world at large in forestry matters, because it has been until lately the largest exporter of wood and has only just fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest management: the law of 1903 promises to bring about very decided changes, and to curtail the exports upon which other European nations so much rely.

Sweden, with 172,876 square miles, occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Scandinavian peninsula. It is not like Norway, a mountain country, but the greater part consists of low granitic hills. The mountain range (Koelen) which forms the boundary towards Norway falls off in a long slope towards the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic sea, the coast being a broad level plain, with a series of islands, larger or smaller, girdling the outer coast line and forming an archipelago.

The country is cut into numerous water sheds, the many rivers (called elfs), furnishing means of transportation, expanding frequently into lakes (sjö) in the upper reaches, and falling with cataracts into the lower plain, giving rise to fine water powers. Eight per cent. of the total area is in lakes. Only 12 per cent. of the land area is in farms. The forest area, with nearly 50 million acres, occupies nearly 48 per cent., leaving 40 per cent. waste land or otherwise occupied.

Half of the population of over 5 million pursues agriculture, while iron manufacture and the lumber industry occupy one-quarter.

Of the three main divisions of the country, the southern, Götaland, is richest in lowlands and agricultural soils, and, as it has also a favorable maritime climate, farming is the main industry. Here, a population of 50 to 60, and in parts up to 190 per square mile is found. Beech and oak are here the principal trees, with spruce occasionally intermixed.

In the central part, Svealand or Sweden proper, the forest region begins, with pine and spruce, pure or in mixture, covering the granite hills and plateau; birch and other hardwoods, oak, beech, elm, basswood and aspen being found in the river valleys; but the third division, Norrland, is the forest region of commercial importance, the seat of the extensive export trade. It is a vast, almost unbroken forest country, with hardly more than 3 people to the square mile, in the northernmost part, called Lapland, Laps and Finns forming a not inconsiderable part of the population. Pine and spruce are the timber trees, with White Birch intermixed. Towards the northern boundary the pine increases, in more and more open stands as one goes northward into the drier climate. An open stunted growth of birch and aspen forms the transition to the treeless tundra.

A treeless alpine region occupies the northwestern frontier, fringed at lower elevations by a belt of birch in natural coppice, a result of repeated fires. The northeastern part is a level coast plain, but the climate is too severe for agriculture and the forest growth also is short and of inferior quality.

Large areas of swampland are found in nearly all parts, recoverable for farm or forest use, and mismanaged and devastated forest areas are found all over the country.

The forest, nearly 10 acres per capita, on account of its accessibility to the sea by means of the many rivers, plays an important rôle in the economy of Sweden, not only because it covers such a large area and favorable composition (80 % coniferous), but because it has long been a prominent source of income. Especially after the abolition of the English import duties, in 1866, and of the Swedish export duties which had restricted trade, in 1863, did a rapid increase in wood exports take place, until in 1900, it amounted to over 54 million dollars (of which 12 million for woodenware), being the leading export article and representing over one-half of all exports.

In addition to this export which may represent at least a round 300 million cubic feet of wood, there are about 250 million cubic feet of pulpwood and 150 million feet used for charcoal, besides the domestic fuel consumption. The total draft on the forest may be estimated to come near to 1,200 million cubic feet which is believed far in excess of the annual growth, much of the nearly 50 million acres of forest area having been devastated or deteriorated by axe and fire and being located in a northern zone where the growth is slow (1 inch in 12 to 15 years). According to others, the cut remains below the increment by about 25 per cent., the latter being figured at 25 cubic feet per acre. In the State forests, to be sure, mostly located in the more northern tiers, the cut is kept between 6 and 7 cubic feet effective, but here a waste of sometimes 40 % is incurred in the exploitation due to the difficulties in transport.