Kitabı oku: «A Brief History of Forestry.», sayfa 20

1. Property Conditions

It was Gustav Vasa who, in 1542, declared all uncultivated lands the property of the Crown. Parts of them, however, were given to colonists, and these as well as the resident population had the right to use the neighboring forest to supply their needs for wood and pasture. By the continued exercise of this right, the forest came to be considered commons, proprietary rights remaining long in doubt. Finally, a division came about, some of the lands becoming the property of the parishes, others of smaller districts (the hundreds), others again encumbered or unencumbered property of the State, and some remained in joint ownership of State and private individuals under various complicated conditions.

The State now owns somewhat over 16 million acres, of which, however, only 70 % are really forest, and controls more or less 4 million more, of which about 900,000 acres are ecclesiastical benefices and forests belonging to public institutions, and 2.7 million acres in State farms, which are rented.

Since 1875, the State has pursued a policy of purchase, which has added over 500,000 acres (at $7 per acre) to the domain. Lately, this policy has found considerable opposition. In this way, by reforesting, and by settlement of disputed titles the State property in absolute possession of the government has grown by nearly 5 per cent., to 10 million acres.

In Lapland the entire forest area used to belong to the State, but in order to attract settlers these were given forest property for their own use, from 10 to 100 times the area which they had cleared. This forest area the settlers disposed of to wood merchants (lumbermen), until the law of 1873 intervened, restricting the settlers to the usufruct alone, the government taking charge of the cutting of wood for sale and limiting the cut to a diameter of 8 inch at 16 feet from the base.

This interference with what was supposed to be private rights seems to have been resented, and has led to wasteful practices, in the absence of a sufficient force of forest guards. Nevertheless the law was extended to Westerbotten in 1882.

In other provinces, Wermland, Gestrikland, etc., the government vested in the owners or ironworks the right to supply themselves with charcoal from State forests. But about the middle of the 19th century, when, owing to railroad development in other parts, some of the ironworks became unremunerative and were abandoned, their owners continued to hold on to the forest privileges, and by and by exercised them by cutting and sawing lumber for sale, or even by selling the forest areas as if they were their properties; and in this way these properties changed hands until suddenly the government began to challenge titles, and commenced litigation, about 1896.

Grants of certain log cutting privileges on government lands were also made to sawmills in past times, usually by allowing sawmillers to cut a certain number of logs annually at a very low price. In 1870 these grants, which were very lucrative, were modified by substituting the right of an increased cut for a stated number of years at a modified price, after which the grant was to cease. In 1900, there were still some 300,000 acres under such grants.

No wonder that under these circumstances the value of the State forest property was, in 1898, assessed at only $1.60 per acre; the net income being $1,680,753, or about 12 cents per acre; the expenditures for administration, supervision, and forest school amounting to $423,659, to which should be added an undetermined amount for the participation of the domain bureau, the agricultural department and provincial governments, all taking part in the forest administration.

Many of the towns and country districts (haerad) have received donations of forest areas from the Crown, which have been a considerable source of revenue to them. The parish of Orsa, e.g., realized from its forest property some 2.5 million dollars, and other similar results are recorded.

These communal and institute forests of various description comprise somewhat over 2.6 million acres, or 5.5 %, and are placed under management of local committees, with the governor of the province as chairman. The management consists in selling stumpage of all trees over 13 inches in diameter 5 feet above ground, to be cut by the purchaser under regulations.

In the years from 1840 to 1850, the government sold to English wood merchants considerable tracts of timberland, and in the latter part of the 19th century, as the sawmill industry expanded, many mill firms acquired wood-cutting leases for 50 year terms for prices which were often realized from the forest in the first winter. At present longer leases than for 20 years are prohibited by law. The diameter limit of 12 inches, 18 or 20 feet above ground, was usually the basis of the leases; and as the owners could then lease away other sizes, it might happen that 2 or 3 persons besides the original owner would have property rights in the same forest. Of late years many of the mill owners have endeavored to get rid of the resulting inconvenience by buying the fee-simple of the land. This movement has resulted in the aggregation of large areas in single hands or more often in the hands of large mill companies.

By the acquisition of these properties a certain amount of cultivated land is usually included, which is then left to the former owner at a nominal rent, provided that he pays the taxes on the whole; thereby creating a class of renters in lieu of owners of farms. The area thus privately owned, mostly by sawmill companies, must be over 25 million acres; the total private forest area, which includes the bulk of the commercial forest, is about 30 million acres (61.3 %), unreclaimable waste lands swelling the figure to over 50 million.

2. Development of Forest Policy

From the times of Olaf Tratâlja, the first Christian king of Sweden (about 1000 A.D.), who gained fame by the part he took in exploiting the forests of Wermland, down to the 14th century Sweden suffered from a superabundance of forest. Nevertheless, by the end of that century restriction of the wilful destruction by fire was felt necessary, and an ordinance with that object in view was promulgated.

It is questionable whether this order had any effect in a country, where the homestead law provided, that a settler might take up “as much pasture and arable land as he could make use of, twice as much forest, and in addition on each side of this homestead as much as a lame man could go over on crutches without resting.”

Not till 1638, do we again find an attempt at forest conservancy, this time in the interest of supply of charcoal for the iron industry, by the appointment of overseers of the public forests.

The first general forest code, however, dates from 1647, which among other useless prescriptions made the existing usage of planting two trees for every one cut obligatory, and this provision remained on the statutes until 1789. In spite of this and other, restrictive, laws, exploitation by the liege lords and the communities continued until, in 1720, a director of forests for the two southern districts, Halland and Bohus, was appointed, and, at least in this part of the country, the execution of the laws was placed under a special officer.

This appointment may be considered the first germ of the later forest department.

A policy of restriction seems to have prevailed during the entire 18th century, although it is questionable whether the restrictions were enforced since there was no personnel to watch over their enforcement, and the governors, in whose hands the jurisdiction lay, had other interests, more engrossing. A law, enacted in 1734, restricted the peasant forest owners in the sale of wood from their own properties, and, in 1789, this restriction and other supervision was extended to those of the nobility.

It appears that soon after this a considerable sentimental solicitude inside and outside the Riksdag was aroused regarding an apprehended deterioration of climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of further forest destruction – in the light of present experience a rather amusing anticipation. These jeremiads, however, after an unsatisfactory attempt at legislation in 1793, led, in 1798, to the appointment of a commission which reported after 5 years of investigation. A new set of forest regulations was enacted as a result in 1805.

In further prosecution of these attempts at regulating forest use a commissioner, Prof. F. W. Radloff, was sent to Germany, in 1809, to study methods employed in that country. Long before that time, about 1762, some of the iron masters, owning large forest areas had imported a commission of German forest experts (among them von Langen and Zanthier, the same who had done similar work in Norway and Denmark) with a view of systematizing the forest use; but apparently without result.

After much discussion of Radloff’s report, and consultation with the provincial governors, who suggested the propriety of different plans for different localities, new legislation was had in 1810, 1818, 1823, and new regulations for the crown forests were issued in 1824.

Yet at this very time not only the partition of the communal forests but also the sale of town forests was ordered; and this policy of dismemberment lasted till 1866, over 1 million acres having been sold by that time. Nor was any diminution in wasteful practices to be noted as a result of legislation, and it seems that, while on the one hand restrictive policies were discussed and enacted, on the other hand unconservative methods were encouraged. Indeed, in 1846, the then existing restrictions of the export trade were removed; apparently a reversion of restrictive policy had set in, and exploitation increased, in the belief of inexhaustible supplies. On the other hand, encouragement of reforestation was sought by giving bounties for planting waste land and for leaving a certain number of seed trees in the felling areas, also by paying rewards for the best plantations; all without result.

Meanwhile a check to the wood trade had occurred through the imposition of exorbitant customs duties by Great Britain, and at the same time the government imposed an export duty to discourage export from Norrland, and this was not abated until 1857.

A further project of forest supervision was attempted through a report by a new commission appointed in 1828, which formulated rules for the control of public and private forests, and recommended the establishment of a Central bureau for the management of forest affairs, as well as the organization of a Forest Institute, for the teaching of forestry. This Institute was established at Stockholm in 1828, but, instead of organizing the bureau, the director of that institute was charged with the duties of such bureau. Again for years, committee reports followed each other, but led to no satisfactory solution of the problems.

In 1836, however, a forestry corps (skogstaten) was organized for the management of the State forests under the direction of the Forest Institute, and, as a result of persistent propaganda, the central bureau of forest administration (skogsstyrelsen) was created in 1859 with Björkman at the head, charged with the supervision of all the State, royal, communal and other public forests, and the control of private forest use.

The law of 1859, however, did not settle upon any new policy of control over private forest properties. Again and again, forest committees were appointed to propose proper methods of such control, but not until 1903 was a general law enacted, which was to go into effect on January 1, 1905.

Previous to this, locally applicable laws were enacted. In 1866, a law was passed which referred only to a particular class of private lands, namely those forests of Norrland which the State was to dispose of for ground rent, or which had been disposed of and on which the conditions of settlement had not been fulfilled. In 1869, a law applicable only on the island of Gotland provided a dimension limit, and that in case of neglect of regeneration on private fellings the owner may not cut any more wood for sale, until the neglect had been remedied.

Exactly in the same manner as the homestead and other colonization laws in the United States have been abused to get hold of public timber lands, so in Sweden large areas of government land had been taken up for settlement, but actually were exploited. It was to remedy this evil that in 1860 an examination of the public lands was ordered with a view of withdrawing portions from settlement and of making forest reservations. The royal ordinance of 1866 resulted, which was to regulate the cutting on settled lands and in such new settlements as were thereafter allowed.

Here, private owners at first were allowed to cut only for their own use, and the new law prescribed the amount of yearly cut and required the marking of timber designed for sale by the government officers.

This “compulsory marking” or “Lapland” law with a dimension limit, was, in 1873, extended to all private forests in Norbotten, and in 1888, to Vesterbotten. This law limits the diameter to which fellings are to be made (8 inches at 15 feet from base), and if the cutting of smaller trees is deemed desirable for the benefit of the forest these are to be designated by forest officials.

The law for Gotland was renewed in 1894, adding a reforestation clause, the governor being authorized to prohibit shipping of timber under 8 inch diameter, and that not until new growth was established; or at least no new fellings may be made until this condition is fulfilled. The same law applies to sand dune plantations in other, southern districts. Altogether one-quarter of the private forest property was in this manner subjected to restrictions, until the present conservation law came into existence.

This law, of 1903, which became operative in 1905, was the result of a most painstaking, extended canvass by the legislative committee, appointed in 1896, which reported in 1899, and of a further canvass by the Director of Domains, who reported in 1901. A large amount of testimony from private forest owners, sawmill men, provincial and local government officials, etc., was accumulated, and it may be reasonably expected that this new legislation will be more effective than most of the preceding seems to have been.

The law requires in general terms the application of forestry principles in the management of private woodlands. For this purpose, a Forest Protection Committee, one for each province, is constituted which has surveillance over all private forests, an institution similar to that existing in Russia.

The Committee, or Forest Conservation Board, consists of three persons who are appointed for three years, one by the government, one by the County Council, one by the managing committee of the County Agricultural Society. In addition, where the communities desire, elected Forest Conservation Commissioners may be instituted to make sure of the enforcement of the law. The Board secures the services of an expert adviser from the State forest service paid by the government but leaves to the Board discretion as to the interpretation of the law which is for the most part expressed in general terms, to secure conservative management. Hence different Boards have worked in different ways, but gradually all are coming to similar methods, and all apply persuasive means rather than force.

The law requires regeneration, but does not prescribe detail methods as to how re-growth is to be obtained, leaving these to be determined by the Board in consultation with the owners. If no agreement can be arrived at, or if the measures stipulated are not taken by the owner, the Board may enforce its rulings by Court proceedings, in which injunctions to prevent further lumbering, confiscation of logs, or of lumber, or money fines may be adjudged.

The time of contracts for logging rights is reduced from 20 to 5 years. Short courses of instruction to forest owners, and the issuing of popularly written technical publications (Folkskrifter) is one of the efficient methods of securing the result, which seems to have been attained in the few years since the law is in operation, namely in arousing such interest that opposition has become very small.

An export duty (4 to 8 cents per 100 cubic feet of timber, 8 to 14 cents per ton of dry wood pulp) is levied for the purpose of carrying out the law the export duty amounting to over $160,000, and a more general export duty is under contemplation.

The management of communal forest is to be placed under the State forest administration, the corporations paying 1.6c. per acre; but this feature does not seem entirely settled.

Protective forests under special regulations are established at the alpine frontier and on the drift-sand plains, which are planted up.

3. Forest Administration and Forestry Practice

The central forestry bureau as it exists now was organized in 1883 as the Domain Bureau in the Department of Agriculture with, at present, a forester as General Director, and under it a forestry corps (skogstaten) (reorganized in 1890) which has charge of the public forests, and also of the forest control in the private forests where such control exists outside of the Conservation Boards. For the purpose of this administration the country is divided into 10 districts, each under an inspector (or öfverjägmästare); the districts are divided into ranges (revir), now 90, each under a chief of range (or jägmästare) with assistants and guards (kronojägare); the nomenclature of the officers suggesting the hunt rather than the forest management. In addition, 6 forest engineers are employed on working plans, engineering works, and in giving advice and assistance to private owners who pay for such service.

When it is stated that the ranges in the northern provinces average over 300,000 acres of public and 400,000 acres of private forest; in central Sweden 150,000 acres of public and 145,000 acres of private forest, and in the southern provinces nearly 55,000 acres of State and communal forest, it will be understood that the control cannot be very strict.

The net revenue from the State forest during the last 30 years has increased from $300,000 to $1,750,000.

The management of even the State forests can only be very extensive. The State still sells mostly stumpage, rarely cutting on its own account. The lumbering is carried on very much as in the United States by logging contractors, and the river driving is done systematically by booming companies. Selection forest is still the general practice, now often improved into group system, although a clear cutting system with planting has been practised, but is supposed to be less desirable, probably because it entails a direct money outlay or else because it was not properly done. A seed tree management preferred by private owners for pine seems frequently not successful. Of the State forests 90 % are under selection system, and of the private forest 60 %.

In the southern provinces where planting is more frequently resorted to, 2-3 year old pines and 2-5 year old spruces, nursery-grown, 2,000 to the acre, are generally used or else sowing in seedspots is resorted to, which is more frequently practised in the middle country.

Some 10,000 acres were, for instance, planted by the forest administration in 1898, at a cost of $2 per acre, and the budget contains annually about $20,000 for such planting.

That private endeavor in the direction of planting, has also been active, is testified by a plantation of over 26,000 acres, now 35 years old, reported from Finspong Estate.

Complete working plans are rare even for the State forests, a mere summary felling budget being determined for most areas, the trees to be cut being marked.

Under instructions issued in 1896, working plans for the small proportion of State forest management by clearing system are to be made. In these an area allotment method is employed with rotations of 100 to 150 years.

Forest fires are still very destructive, especially in northern Sweden, although an effective patrol system, greatly assisted in some provinces by watch towers, has reduced the size of the areas burnt over. The coniferous composition and the dry summers in the northern part together with the methods of lumbering are responsible for the conflagrations. In this direction too, the activities of the Conservation Boards have been highly useful.