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In addition, the regulations of Shuyuan (Confucian Academy), where the gurus lectured their “principles,” were all influenced by the “forest institution (i.e. gathering place)” and “archaic rules” that were widely accepted among Zen schools. The “quotations” and “cases” that were used by gurus in their lectures were obviously inspired by the “yulu” (quotations of past patriarchs) and “gong’an” (inspirational speeches of past patriarchs) of Zen Buddhism. In terms of the topic and style, Yiluo yuanyuan lu伊洛渊源录(Collected biographies of previous masters of Learning of Principle) and Jinsi lu近思录 (Reflections on things at hand), Zhu Xi’s two works delineating the history of lixue, were not very different from denglu (records of transmission of the lamp) that was prevalent in Zen sects. Overall, the examples that the Song-Ming lixue absorbed Buddhist elements can be found everywhere. It is safe to say that without the Buddhist influence Confucianism in China could by no means be transformed into lixue. In this sense, Buddhism became a great impetus to the growth of Chinese civilization.

3) Thriving Daoism

The Song dynasty embraced a very active Daoism. At that time, thanks to Chen Tuan and Zhang Boduan’s effort the learning of Internal Alchemy had been further systematized and deepened. The Daoist philosophy grew mature. The division of Daoism was furthered and consequently new Daoist sects were created. The general attitude towards Daoism had grown more propitious. On the one hand, the Song rulers made great efforts to promote Daoism in order to consolidate the monarchy, stabilize society, and assimilate the barbarians against the backdrop of weakening Imperial power, reduced territories, powerful invaders, rebellious peasants and in particular the self-complacent Southern Song in possession merely of lower reaches of Yangtze River. On the other hand, the people needed the consolation provided by Daoism, an authentic Chinese religion, with which they would be physically and psychologically tranquilized. Therefore, Daoism embraced great development in the two Songs and grew much more prestigious.

(A) The rulers’ advocacy of Daoism

Su Chengyin, a renowned Daoist priest, was summoned to the presence of the founding Emperor. Emperor Tai was also a fan of Daoism. In the reign of Taiping Xingguo he twice received Chen Tuan, a leading Daoist priest from Mount Hua, and granted him a handsome reward. The Emperor even lauded Chen before the Prime Ministers. His “eulogy” is as follows:

[Chen] Tuan exceptionally perfects his own moralities and never involves himself in any affair in regard to power and fortune. It is Tuan who is the exact person genuinely extricating himself from all secular affairs. Tuan has lived in Mount Hua for more than four decades. He shall be a centenarian. Tuan says he has gone through the chaotic Five Dynasties. He feels so lucky that he can finally live in the period of great peace. Therefore, he pays a formal visit to me. I have conversed with him. It is worth lending an ear to him.

The Emperor conferred the honorific title—Master of Profound Emptiness—upon Chen Tuan and rewarded him with the prestigious purple clothing. They even communicated in the decent way of writing poems and appreciated each other very much. In the Ruigong reign, Emperor Tai conferred a prestigious title—The Emperor of Modelling on Heaven and Admiring the Way—upon Chen Tuan. In the Chunhua reign the Emperor invited Zhong Fang, a recluse in Mount Zhongnan, to come to the Imperial city. The recluse declined the supreme ruler’s invitation. The Emperor collected instead as many Daoist writings as possible and then asked Xu Xuan and Wang Yuchuan to proofread and correct all of them. Finally, the Emperor reaped 3,727 volumes in total. The reason why Emperor Tai respected Daoist priests so much, those who were devoted to pure practice and cultivation, lies in the notions of Daoist tranquility and nonaction, by which the body can be nourished and the state be well governed. The Emperor attached increasing importance this Daoist quintessence and attempted to incorporate Daoist methods in the name of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi into politics. What most interested the Emperor was if a Daoist sect adhered to magical arts and was capable of justifying the divine rule of the Emperor and warding off disasters by praying for the people. Emperor Zhen followed Emperor Tai and went even further.

In the case of Emperor Tai, who suffered so much from the rumor that he murdered his elder brother—the founding Emperor of Northern Song—with an axe in the shadow of a flickering candle, he created the mythology of Yisheng 翊圣 (Holy Assistant) in the hope that the divine power would quell the rumor. It was said that Yisheng was an immortal assistant of the Higher Jade Emperor of Great Majesty. As mandated by the supreme celestial ruler, Yisheng ascended to the home of Zhang Shouzhen in Mount Zhongnan and played the leading role in assisting the new Song. When the founding Emperor was dying, he spoke on behalf of the divine Yisheng that “the enfeoffed King of Jin [i.e. Zhao Guangyi, or the Emperor Tai] is of greater benevolent nature” and repeated it. This implies that Zhao Guangyi was entitled to seize the throne. It is evident that such a mythology was used to cover the brutal struggle for Imperial power. As a consequence, Yisheng became the distinguished god worshipped by the royal family. In the ninth year of Dazhong Xiangfu (1016) of Emperor Zhen, Wang Qinruo, the leading Minister, complied the Biography of Yisheng, the True Lord of Nourishing Virtue and published it nationwide. Author(s) of the imperial Biography persuaded the people to believe in the divine right of Song Emperors, and praised Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism in particular. They also expounded the Sword Rules—methods of warding off devils—and Platform Rules—methods of praying for blessings. In doing so, the influence of Daoism was increased substantially. Emperor Tai conferred the title—“General”—upon Yisheng; Emperor Zhen added “True Lord of Nourishing Virtue” to the divine figure. Emperor Hui offered “yinggan” (Communicator between Heaven and Man) to the True Lord.

Among Song rulers, the Emperors Zhen and Hui were the most enthusiastic supporters of Daoism. Emperor Zhen was forced to sign the humiliating Chanyuan Agreement with the powerful Khitan regime. In order to save face and stabilize the regime, the Emperor attempted to ask religion for help. Wang Qinruo suggested that the Emperor perform the grandest fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai. Wang asserted “[The Fengshan Ceremony could] overwhelm the Four Seas and overpower the barbarians.” The initiation of fengshan depended on the Heaven-sanctioned auspiciousness, which could be man-made. In collaboration with Wang Dan, a senior officer, the Emperor created signs such as the appearance of the auspicious Heavenly Book and the descension of the celestial god in the light of moral guidance by divine power. In doing so, the traditional worship of the celestial god and Daoist beliefs were fused together and consequently a distinctive royal religion was created. The following is an explanation of the Emperor and Wang Dan’s recreation of Daoism.

At the very beginning of the first year of Dazhong Xiangfu (1008), Emperor Zhen told his ministers that in the previous year an immortal visited him in the deep of night and enlightened him that a golden [Daoist] altar should be built in the Court in preparation for the coming of the Heavenly Book. Very soon a Heavenly Book written on yellow silk was found at the corner of Imperial Palace. Wang Dan first showed reverence to it and then brought it to the Emperor. The Book read,

[The family of] Zhao received the mandate of heaven and rose to power in Song. The destiny has fallen on Heng [i.e. Zhao Heng, Emperor Zhen]. The Emperor has great abilities and acts righteously. Song will continue to exist for 700 years and even lasts forever.

When the news was heard, ministers swarmed into the Imperial Court and warmly congratulated the Emperor. At that time the discovery of the Heavenly Book caused a great sensation. In the fourth month, the second Heavenly Book appeared in the Imperial Palace. Two months later, a third Book fell on Mount Tai. A great number of ceremonies were held in celebration of the “unexpected” holy books. The Emperor built a golden Daoist altar, where the image of Supreme Jade Emperor, who was reverently given the more prestigious title—“Greater Celestial Emperor”, was positioned at the very center. Originally the Jade Emperor was the celestial god reigning over the Daoist world. Thanks to Emperor Zhen’s reconstruction the supreme Daoist god and the traditional Lord Above of Vast Heaven were made one. Such a syncretism was one of characteristics of the cult of celestial gods in Song. However, the story did not end here.

Four years later, Emperor Zhen talked about one of his dreams in front of his assistants. The Emperor states that an immortal brought the edict of Jade Emperor to him and said, “One of your ancestors—Zhao So-and-so—has already showed you the Heavenly Book and now [the Jade Emperor asks me to] meet you again [with the expectation that you will] reverently worship the Emperor of Profound Primordiality as Tang emperors did.” Later the Emperor said he saw the Celestial Venerable of Numinousness and Guardianship descending from the heaven. The Venerable told the Emperor,

I am one of the nine Emperors in the image of human beings. I am the remotest ancestor of the Zhao family. If I descend again, I will be Xuanyuan Huangdi (i.e. the Yellow Emperor). But the popular ideas that Huangdi is the son of Shaodian is incorrect. My mother responded to the lightning and gave birth to me in Shouqiu. In Later Tang dynasty I descended to the mundane on the first day of seventh month in accordance with the Jade Emperor’s order. I am in charge of the immortal world and have spiritually reigned over the Zhao family for more than one hundred years.

In view of this, the Emperor had the news of an immortal’s descension publicized nationwide and conferred the title—The Celestial Venerable, Great Emperor and Holy Ancestor of Supreme Numinousness in the Highest Heavens—upon the supernatural being. The mother of the supernatural being was given the title—The Greater Holy Queen of Primordial Heaven. A new god—The Celestial Venerable of Nourishing Life, whose surname was Zhao—was thus added into the Daoist pantheon. The newly-created god was the patron of the royal Zhao family. Emperor Zhen also made an effort to increase the eminence of the Jade Emperor. A longer and more prestigious title—The Highest Creator of Heaven, Tally-Holder, and Greater Sovereign Embracing Truth and Embodying the Way—was attached to the supreme Jade Emperor. In the meantime, new titles—“The Holy Patriarch, Celestial Venerable and Greater Emperor” and “The Holy Mother and Greater Queen of Primordial Heaven”—were attached to the remotest ancestor of Zhao and his wife, respectively. For more details in regard to the Emperor’s work of adoring the Daoist deities, one can consult the seventh part of “Annals of Proprieties” in History of Song Dynasty.

Taishang Laojun, or the Grand Supreme Elderly Lord, was also Emperor Zhen’s favorite god. The title that he conferred upon the Elderly Lord was the “Emperor of Most Profound Primordiality and Consummate Virtue.” Apart from conferring various prestigious titles upon different Daoist and familial gods, the Emperor also built many Daoist temples such as the Temple of Tianqing (Heavenly Celebration), the Hall of Shengzu (Holy Patriarch) and the Palace of Yuqing Zhaoying (Jade Purity and Luminous Response). Emperor Zhen created 2,610 temples in total. So many statues and images of Jade Emperor, Holy Patriarch and Emperor Zhen were made in accordance with the number of newly-created temples. How much money that the Emperor spent building Daoist temples and producing related statues and images is hard to imagine. An ancestral hall—the Palace of Jingling (Brilliant Soul)—was built in the Imperial City in honor of his remotest holy father. In addition, Emperor Zhen designated some renowned Daoist priests, all of whom were under the instruction of Wang Qinruo, to select and emendate all extant Daoist scriptures. The product of their work was Baowen tonglu宝文统录 (An integrated collection of precious [Daoist] writings). Later Zhang Junfang revised the collection and reorganized it into the Tianguan baozang天官宝藏 (The precious collections of Heavenly Servant), which consisted of 4,565 volumes of Daoist scriptures. Picking out the most essential texts, Zhang compiled Yunji qiqian云笈七签 (Cloudy satchel containing essentials of Seven Daoist Collections), which received so much praise that it was called the “minor Daoist Treasures.”

Emperor Zhen liked the most the Daoist Sect of Zhengyi, or the Way of Orthodox Unity. The sect was renowned for its activities of praying for blessings and warding off disasters. The Emperor had invited Zhang Zhengsui, who was the 24 patriarch of the Way of Celestial Master in the Mount of Dragon and Tiger, to come to the Imperial Palace and conferred the title—Zhenjing Xiansheng, or the Master of True Tranquility—upon Zhang. Zhang was also appointed as the founding Superintendent of Shoulu Yuan, or the Registrar of Senior Daoist Priests and Primary Officer of Supreme Purity. Zhang was exempted from paying taxes and his title could be inherited for posterity. The preferential treatment that Zhang was offered marked the beginning of the tradition that the Emperor conferred the prestigious title—Xiansheng, or Master—upon the Daoist Celestial Master. Emperor Zhen had sincerely said that “I try to moralize the country by reverently adopting the [Daoist] Invisible and Inaudible Way and administer the people by means of purity and tranquility.72” To put it simply, Emperor Zhen attempted to achieve the state’s peace and prosperity with the help of the Ways of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. As a matter of fact, what he extravagantly and lavishly engaged in did not bring peace or prosperity at all, but instead very much disturbed the people’s everyday lives.

Emperor Zhen, however, paled in comparison with Emperor Hui in terms of the adoration of Daoism. According to the official biography in Songshi, Emperor Hui produced nine giant tri-legged caldrons in the Palace of Jiucheng (Highest Achievements) in the fourth year of Chongning (1105). Three years later, or in the second year of Da’guan, he promulgated the Jinlu Lingbao daochang yifan金箓灵宝道场仪范 (Golden rules in regards to Daoist rituals of [School of] Numinous Treasure). In the fifth year of Zhenghe (1115), Emperor Hui conferred the title—Virgin Master of Subtle Profundity—upon Wang Zixi, a Daoist priest living in Mount Song. Next year, he met a group of Daoist priests in the Palace of Shangqing Baolu (Supreme Purity and Holy Records) and visited in person the Palace of Yuqing Heyang (Jade Purity and Harmonious Yang [Positive Force]), where he reverently showed the Imperially sealed precious scroll containing the title—“The Highest Creator of Heaven, Tally-Holder, Lord Above of Vast Heaven and Jade Emperor Embracing Truth and Embodying the Way”—before the image of God. In the seventh year of Zhenghe, the Emperor gathered more than 2,000 Daoist priests together in the Palace of Shangqing Baolu and asked Lin Lingsu, the Master of Understanding Truth, to tell them the news of immortal’s descension. Lin was also required to lecture about the Daoist sutras in the meeting. Later, the Academy of Daoist Genealogy of Gods received an Imperial order and wrote a memorandum to the throne. In the memorandum, Emperor Hui was given a new title—“The Daoist Patriarch and Lord and The Emperor.” In the fourth month of the first year of Chonghe (1118), the Emperor issued an edict, by which the fifteenth day of the second month of the lunar year was chosen as the birthday of the Emperor of Most Profound Primordiality and Consummate Virtue. One month later, Lin Lingsu was given the title of Master of Understanding Truth, Acquiring Numinousness and Achieving Profundity—and Zhang Xubai was given the title of Master of Understanding Primordiality and Illuminating Profundity. Additionally, the Festival of Yuancheng (Primordial Accomplishment) was statutorily held on the ninth day of the eighth month, which was the birthday of the Greater Lord of Blue Corona. In the eighth month, the Dao de jing that was annotated by the Emperor himself was published nationwide. In the ninth month, the Emperor required that there be two Imperial academicians in the Imperial Academy and schools who specialized in Nei jing (Inner Canon [of the Yellow Emperor), Dao de jing, Zhaungzi and Liezi. The selected academicians collected significant Daoist events that took place in the past and present, and reorganized them into annals. The product of their efforts was entitled by Emperor Dao shi, or the History of Dao[ism]. Two leading Daoist priests—Lin Lingsu, who enjoyed the benefits applicable to the Intermediate Grand Officer, and Zhang Xubai, who was virtually given the position of Intermediate Grand Officer for Proper Service—were appointed at actual posts in accordance with their official ranks.

In the first month of the first year of Xuanhe (1119), Emperor Hui launched the anti-Buddhist movement. Daoism was raised to a higher place, accordingly. The purpose of his efforts to rename Buddhist professionals and institutions was to fundamentally change Buddhism by means of Daoism. Two months later, in one of his edicts the Emperor required that the Daoist priests all over the country and regional officials mutually respect each other. In the fifth month, the “man of virtue” (i.e. monk) was allowed to join the Daoist teaching in accordance with the rules applicable to Daoist priests. In the sixth month, the Emperor issued an edict, by which the title of True Lord of Profound Subtleness and Primordial Thoroughness was conferred upon Zhaungzi, and Lie Yukou (i.e. Liezi) was given the title of True Lord of Acquiring emptiness and Illuminating Profundity. And moreover, the tablets of the two True Lords were correlated to the Emperor of Most Profound Primordiality and Consummate Virtue in the sacrificial ceremonies.

In his life Emperor Hui was always an admirer and proponent of Daoism. In the early years of his reign, the Emperor’s favorite Daoist priests were: Liu Hunkang, who was the 25th patriarch of Maoshan Sect and enjoyed the title of “Master of Nourishing Truth, Observing Profundity and Tranquilizing Nature”; Zhang Jixian, the 30th Celestial Master of Mount Dragon and Tiger; and Xu Shouxin from the Xu Prefecture. In the Zhenghe reign, two Daoist priests—Wang Laozhi and Wang Zixi—won the favor of Emperor Hui. The Emperor had said that he met Laozi in one of his dreams and received the Lord’s holy enlightenment that “you [the Emperor] are destined to bring my teachings to a more prosperous stage.” Then, there was the immortal’s descension. Among a great variety of Daoist priests, it was Lin Lingsu林灵素, a priest renowned for his grand narratives, who influenced Emperor Hui the most. He told the Emperor that Heaven was nine-layered, among which the Holy Clouds was the highest layer. The King of Jade Purity in Holy Clouds was the eldest son of the Lord Above and his courtesy name was the Great Emperor of Longevity. The god was none other than Emperor Hui. Such a holy Emperor reigned over the south. The Greater Lord of Blue Corona, who was in charge of the east, was the Emperor’s younger brother. Cai Jing, who assumed the leadership among Ministers and won favor of Emperor Hui, was the Left Immortal Earl of Primordiality; Wang Fu, a senior official in the Imperial court, was the Prime Officer of Cultural Attainment; Sheng Zhang and Wang Ge were the Precious and Brilliant Superintendents of Immortal Garden; Madam Liu, one of the Emperor’s concubines with highest rank, was the Glamourous Lady of Jade Purity and True Tranquility. Being so flattered by Lin’s absurd talks, Emperor Hui had the Daoist priest generously rewarded. It was said that Lin Lingsu had good knowledge of “five-layered heaven,” so that his prayer for rain often worked. Assisted by the priest Lin, Emperor Hui built the Palace of Shangqing Baolu, created the Palace of Longevity and Holy Clouds nationwide, and erected the Altar of Blue Coronary. Thanks to such efforts the officials and ordinary people were all taught the mysterious texts of Holy Clouds and the officials in the Imperial Court were in particular fanatical about the teaching. Whenever there was a grand Daoist fast, tens of thousands of pieces of money would be spent lavishly, and the gathering was brazenly called Meeting of Thousands of Daoists. In the meeting, Lin Lingsu was seated higher than the crowd, at the very center while Emperor Hui sat beside the priest. The Emperor humbly had Lin play the leading role in answering questions raised by the participants. In total, more than 20,000 devotees followed Lin. Such followers wore beautiful clothes and ate fine foods. The institutions of Lin’s Sect of Holy Clouds were similar to those of the Imperial Court. Later Lin was even promoted to position of Commissioner of Yingdao Army that was stationed in Wenzhou, where Lin was born. His prestigious titles included Master of Primordial Profundity, Flying Immortal of Golden Gate, and Dawning Superintendent of Palace of Tranquil Nature (or True Vital Breath of Heaven and Earth). For years, such political and religious prominence ensured that Lin could do almost whatever he wanted to do and outshine the royal princes and enfeoffed kings in the Imperial city. Due to Lin’s apotheosis of the sovereign, Emperor Hui really believed that he himself was the son of Lord Above of Vast Heaven, or the Lord and Emperor of Holy Clouds; moreover, he thought that he became “The Daoist Patriarch and Lord and The Emperor” when he descended to the mundane. Therefore, Emperor Hui historically transformed into a unique Emperor, who was the trinity of celestial god, religious patriarch and secular ruler all in one. In the case of Emperor Hui, the divinity and sovereignty were perfectly fused.

Ironically, such a shallow, clamorous and flippant Daoist effort to apotheosize the ruler accelerated the demise of the Song regime rather than save it from collapse. Emperor Hui, together with Emperor Qin, were captured by the Jurchen troops and finally died in a strange land. The two rulers’ tragic end perfectly demonstrates the deception and negativity of Emperor Hui’s blind adoration of Daoism. The author(s) of “Biography of Emperor Hui” in Songshi pointed out that the reasons why the Emperor lost his country were twofold. On the one hand, “[he] depended solely on petty shrewdness, acted in a biased way, rejected men of righteousness, and became very intimate with falsehearted guys”; on the other hand, “[the Emperor] believed in Daoism so blindly, decorated Daoist temples so lavishly, and traveled around Daoist monasteries so extravagantly that the strength of the people was exhausted, the state politics was left unattended, and the ruler himself was increasingly absurd.” The only achievement of Emperor Hui’s excessive adoration of Daoism was the compilation of Wanshou daozang万寿道藏 (also known as Zhenghe daozang, or The Wanshou Reign’s Complete Collection of Daoist Writings), which included 5,481 volumes of Daoist texts. The Wanshou Collection was the oldest woodblock printed copy of collected Daoist scriptures. As the Northern Song declined by degrees, the traditional Daoist sects that focused on mysterious symbols and prayers languished correspondingly.

In the Southern Song dynasty Emperors were calm proponents of Daoism, with the exception of Emperor Li, who acted slightly excessively in support of the religion. In the third year of Jiaxi (1239), Emperor Li invited Zhang Keda, who was the 35th Celestial Master of Way of Orthodox Unity, to come to the Imperial Court. The priest Zhang was promoted to such an eminent position that he could administer all affairs related to mysterious symbols in sects of Mount Dragon and Tiger, Mount Mao and Mount Gezao. Emperor Li treated him very well and conferred the prestigious title—Master of Observing Profundity—upon him. Consequently, Zhang Keda became the de facto leader of southern Daoist sects. A significant event in the Emperor’s promotion of Daoism was his recommendation of Taishang ganying pian太上感应篇 (Treatise on the Supreme One’s response and reaction). The Emperor himself inscribed eight Chinese words—“Never do anything evil. Always perform everything good”—on the hardcopy of the Treatise. Zhen Dexiu, a renowned Confucian, was asked to write the Preface and Postscript on behalf of the Emperor and Zheng Qingzhi, the leading Minister, to compose the eulogy. The printing work was finished by Hu Yingwei, a prominent Daoist priest from the Palace of Taiyi (Grand Unity). Due to the efforts of the Emperor and eminent Confucians and Daoists the Treatise enjoyed a great popularity. The patriarchal moral teachings in this writing were disseminated far, in a religious way, in the lower echelons of the Song society. Such a religious popularization gave impetus to the fusion of Confucianism and Daoism in turn.