Kitabı oku: «Handbook of the History of Religions in China II», sayfa 3
(B) Buddhist schools, representative figures and writings in Liao
The Liao regime laid stress on the work of training qualified monks and created a sophisticated examination system. Only when a monk passed the examinations of Buddhist canons, vinayas and treatises would he be a good candidate for the “Teacher of Dharma.” Such an examination system gave a great incentive to the academic exploration of Buddhist doctrines. The Liao state had the entire spectrum of Buddhist schools that prevailed in the Central Plain. The Avatamsaka and Esoteric schools were the most popular and flourishing ones, both of which paid particular attention to Buddhist theories and ritualistic stipulations. In comparison with the two leading Buddhist sects, the schools of Zen, Vinaya, Pure Land, Consciousness-only and Abhidharma enjoyed less popularity among the Khitan people.
In the case of Avatamsaka School, it inherited the teachings that prevailed in Tang. Nevertheless, the lineage of the School in Liao could by no means be reconstructed. As far as the authors know, the earliest patriarch of Avatamsaka School in Liao was Haishan 海山, a Teacher of Dharma superintending the Temple of Haiyun (Sea Cloud), located on Juehua Island (present-day Juhua Island of Xingcheng, Liaoning). His birth and death dates are still unknown. Haishan was meant to be an active Buddhist in the reign of Emperor Xing. His secular name was Lang Sixiao朗思孝. Originally, he passed the highest level of Imperial Examination, and he gave up the secular life and chose to be a monk. Inasmuch as he “abided by the Buddhist rules in an extremely strict manner and gained a nationwide reputation,” the senior ministers and nobles were all friendly with him. Emperor Xing conferred honorary titles upon Haishan, such as “the Grand Master of Imperial Entertainments”, “the Principal Minister of Public Construction”, and “the Grand Preceptor in the Service of State Affairs.” He had a very good friendship with Emperor Xing, demonstrated in their written communication by poetry and essays. “Whenever Haishan wrote a memorandum to the Throne, he always signed with his name rather than with official titles,” wrote Wang Ji 王寂.9 Haishan deeply studied the teachings of Avatamsaka and wrote the one-volume Da Huayan jing xuantan chao zhunan ke大华严经玄谈钞逐难科 (Explorations of hard questions regarding the transcription of profound elaborations of the great Avatamsaka Sutra). He also wrote the two-volume Da Huayan jing xiuci fenshu大华严经修辞分疏 (Classified annotations on the rhetoric of the great Avatamsaka Sutra). The names of the two monographs were recorded in Xinbian zhuzong jiaozang zonglu新编诸宗教藏总录 (The new complete catalogue of sutras related to various Buddhist schools, or the “Yitian Catalogue”), a product of Yitian, a monk from Korea. Nevertheless, the two books have been lost.
Xianyan 鲜演 was another monk who was reputable for his academic exploration of the Avatamsaka Sutra. He was born in the Huai Prefecture (present-day Right Banner of Balin, Inner Mongolia), bearing the secular surname “Li.” He received a very good Confucian education when he was a child. After becoming a monk, he traveled to and studied in famous temples across northern China. As a result, he became very educated in Buddhist doctrines, among which the Avatamsaka teaching was his greatest specialty. Emperor Dao very much appreciated his talents:
The Emperor usually in winter and summer issued an edict, by which he invited Xianyan to be at the Imperial court. In the meetings, the Emperor consulted Xianyan about the profound and wonderful Buddhist teachings and the two discussed deeply something conducive to the state.10
The Emperor also cordially invited Xianyan to be the principal lecturer at the Grand Temple of Kailong, or the Palace of Yellow Dragon (present-day Nong’an of Jilin). He conferred upon Xianyan an “especially prestigious four-word title—Perfection, Thoroughness, Enlightenment and Principle.” Xianyan’s official title—“the Grand Master of Imperial Entertainments”—was consequently promoted to be the Grand Guardian of Imperial Inspection and Rectification. When Emperor Tianzuo was enthroned, he improved the grade of Xianyan’s Grand Guardianship. In the fifth year of Qiantong (1106), Xianyan was specially promoted to be the most prestigious Grand Imperial Mentor. He produced numerous Buddhist writings, among which the six-volume Huayan jing xuantan jueze华严经玄谈抉择 (Selections of profound elaborations of Avatamsaka Sutra) was the most well-known. Xianyan also annotated Chengguan’s 澄观Huayan jing shuchao xuantan华严经疏抄玄谈 (Profound elaborations of explanative transcription of Avatamsaka Sutra). Additionally, Xianyan was the author of the following: Renwang huguo jing rongtong shu仁王护国经融通疏 (The penetrative and explanative annotations on the Sutra on the Benevolent King’s Protection of the State); Pusa jiezuanyao shu菩萨戒纂要疏 (Explanations of the essence of Bodhisattva Precepts); Weishi duoqi tiyi chao唯识掇奇提异钞 (Transcriptions of something wonderful and extraordinary in the Treatise on Theory of Consciousness-Only); Moheyan lun xianzheng shu摩珂衍论显正疏 (Annotations in the expectation of expositing the correctness of Treatise on Mahayana); Puti jie xinlun菩提戒心论 (Heartfelt discourses on Bodhisattva Precepts); Zhu jing jie ben诸经戒本(Discourses on precepts related to various sutras); Sanbao liu shi waihu wen三宝六师外护文 (Discourses on Three Treasures, Six Teachers, and External Protections); and others. These writings touched on various aspects of the Buddhist faith. At that time, “In a region as remote as Korea was, there were monastic superintendents who admired Xianyan so much. In a state as vast as the Great Liao was, there were reputable monks and their disciples who were so eager to meet Xianyan.” Xianyan had been thrust into the limelight with his great mastery of teachings of Avatamsaka.
Yelühongji耶律隆基, or Emperor Dao, could also be regarded as a great scholar of Avatamsaka. He had produced the following: a ten-volume Huanyan jing suipin zan华严经随品赞 (Classified explanative discourses in praise of Avatamsaka Sutra); Huayan jing zan华严经赞 (In praise of Avatamsaka Sutra); and Huayan jing wu song华严经五颂 (Five Eulogies dedicated to Avatamsaka Sutra). In addition to prestigious monks such as Haishan and Xianyan and the powerful Emperor Dao, another Avatamsaka scholar was Zhishi 志实, who penned itemized explanations of the Emperor’s Suipin zan and titled them Huayan jing suipin zan ke华严经随品赞科 (Itemized explanations of Huanyan jing suipin zan). In addition, Daobi 道弼, who was an Avatamsaka scholar and a monk from the Temple of Huaya, located in the Mount Long of Xingzhong Prefecture. Daobi was the author of the six-volume Da Huayan jing yanyijixuan ji大华严经演义集玄记 (Collected profound writings with respect to the elaboration of the great Avatamsaka Sutra) and a one-volume Da Huayan jing yanyi zhunan ke大华严经演义逐难科 (Explorations of hard questions regarding the elaboration of the great Avatamsaka Sutra). These writings were all recorded in the Yitian Catalogue.
The Esoteric School was brought to the Middle Kingdom by the “Three Great Masters in the Kaiyuan Reign,” namely, Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra. The School had prevailed in the Central Plain for several decades. Nevertheless, it was boycotted by many Chinese on the grounds that Buddhist esotericism ran counter to orthodox Confucian teaching. Consequently, it disappeared almost entirely in the late Tang dynasty. But in the region of Liao, the Esoteric school was very prevalent. The reason of the School’s popularity in Liao might be related to the culture character of the Khitan people. On the one hand, the Khitan people had never been exposed to strict and sophisticated cardinal principles and constant values formulated by the traditional Confucianism; on the other hand, primitive shamanism still persisted at the time, so that it was very easy for the Khitan people to accept the Buddhist Esoteric arts of having and safely delivering babies, praying for blessings, exorcizing evils, and healing illnesses. The leading figures of Buddhist Esotericism in Liao were Jueyuan 觉苑 and Daoshuo 道硕.
Nobody knows the dates when Jueyuan was born or when he died. He chose to be a monk in his childhood and extensively studied Buddhist sutras of various schools. When Cixian 慈贤, a Master of Tripitaka from Magadha of Western India, came to China and “resolved to disseminate the Esoteric teachings,” Jueyuan chose to study Buddhism under his instruction and “concerned himself with the Buddhist Esotericism.” Jueyuan’s works included: the five-volume Da piluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jingyi shiyan michao大毗卢遮那成佛变伽持经义释演密钞 (Esoteric transcription of elaborations of doctrines embedded in Mahavairocana Tantra); a one-volume Da ke大科 (Great itemized explanations); and the ten-volume Dari jingyi shiyan michao大日经义释演秘钞 ([a different edition of] Esoteric transcription of elaborations of doctrines embedded in Mahavairocana Tantra). Jueyuan gained a great reputation with his efforts to promote Esoteric teaching. He was offered prestigious titles such as the General Preceptor of Esoteric Teaching, the Grand Master of Imperial Entertainments in the Temple of Yuanfu (Perfected Happiness), the Grand Guardian of Imperial Inspection and Rectification, the Acting Minister of Imperial Entertainments, and others.
Like Jueyuan, the birth and death dates of Daoshuo are a mystery. Daoshuo’s secular surname was “Du” and he had a courtesy name Fachuang 法幢 (Pillar of Dharma). “As a younger child, he exposed himself to the Confucian and Buddhist canons,” it was written.11 He had good extensive knowledge of Zen and Vinaya teachings and gained an insight into the external and internal Buddhist doctrines. Later, Daoshuo focused exclusively on Buddhist Esotericism. His works were the two-volume Xianmi yuantong chengfo xinyao ji显密圆通成佛心要集 (Collected Comments on Achieving Buddhahood through the Manifestation of Esoteric Teaching and Perfection of the Wisdom) and an attached one-volume Gongfo lisheng yi供佛利生仪 (Ceremonies of Sacrificing to Buddha in Exchange of Blessings on Life). His writings included four parts—comments on manifest Buddhist teachings, discourses on esoteric Buddhist teachings, argumentations between manifest and esoteric teachings, and his own petitions. In the Preface that he himself penned for the book, Daoshuo writes,
Since Subhakarasimha came to Tang, the Five Mysteries prevailed in China. … Unfortunately, there were greater misunderstandings [about the Buddhist esotericism]. Some exposed themselves to the manifest teachings, so that they vilified the esoteric ones. Some concerned themselves with esoteric teachings, so that they dishonored the purport of manifest ones. … [In view of this,] I attempt to comment on the attainment of Buddhahood in the light of doctrines of both manifest and esoteric teachings, in spite of being merely equipped with poor talent. I sincerely hope that in future people will be intellectually completed and perfected.12
In the quotation, Daoshuo explicitly expresses that the Avatamsaka’s “completion and perfection [of wisdom]” and the esoteric teaching be united, and the dual study in and practice of manifest and esoteric teachings be principled. Such a unity and duality are precisely the characteristic of Liao’s Buddhist Esotericism.
In addition, Xinglin 行琳 finished compiling the 30-volume Shijiao zuishangceng mimi tuoluoni ji释教最上乘秘密陀罗尼集 (The collection of highest Buddhist esoteric dharani). Cixian, an Indian monk, translated the following: Da foding tuoluoni jing大佛顶陀罗尼经 (Dharni of Great Corona of Buddha); Da suiqiu tuoluoni jing大随求陀罗尼经 (Dharani of Great Protectress); Da cuisui tuoluoni jing大摧碎陀罗尼经 (Dharani of Great Obliteration); Miao jixiang pingdeng guanmen dajiaowang jinglüechuhumo yi妙吉祥平等观门大教王经略出护摩仪 (Abbreviated Ceremonies of worshipping fire in The Wonderful, Auspicious and Identical Sutra on King of Great Tantra), and the five-volume Miao jixiang pingdeng guanmen dajiaowang jing妙吉祥平等观门大教王经 (The Wonderful, Auspicious and Identical Sutra on King of Great Tantra). The translation of these esoteric sutras gave great impetus to the dissemination of Buddhist esotericism in Liao. Apart from the esoteric sutras, Zhunti zhou准提咒 (Incantations of Cundi), Liuzi daming zhou六字大明咒 (The Six-Word Mantra of Great Light), and Bada pusa mantuoluo jing八大菩萨曼陀罗经 (Mandala of Eight Great Bodhisattvas), were also very popular among the Liao people.
Thanks to the growing popularity of the teachings of Avatamsaka and esotericism, a trend of exploring Shi moheyan lun释摩诃衍论 (The Explanation of Treatise on Mahayana) swept over the Buddhist circle in Liao. For example, Fawu 法悟, the Master of Elaborating Perfection and Completing Penetration from the Temple of Bao’en (Requiting Favors) in the Middle Imperial City, wrote the five-volume Shi moheyan lun zan xuanshu释摩珂衍论赞玄疏 (Profound explanations of ode to Shi moheyan lun), the three-volume Zan xuanke赞玄科 (Writings in praise of profound prescriptive explanations [of Shi moheyan lun]), and a one-volume Da ke大科 (Great prescriptive explanations [of Shi moheyan lun]). Chunhui 纯慧, a guru residing in the Temple of Guiyi (Returning to Righteousness) of Yanjing, penned the ten-volume Shi moheyan lun tongzan shu释摩诃衍论通赞疏 (Annotations on penetrating odes to Shi moheyan lun). Zhifu 志福, a physician-shaman monk who lived in Mount Lü and was given the title “Penetrating Perfection and Benefiting Action,” produced the four-volume Shi moheyan lun tongxuan chao释摩诃衍论通玄钞 (Transcription of penetrating enlightenment regarding Shi moheyan lun), the three-volume Tongxuan ke通玄科 (Prescriptive explanations of understanding the profundity [of Shi moheyan lun]), and a one-volume Da ke. The lives of these three Buddhist gurus remain a mystery. Nevertheless, their monographs were representative among Buddhist writings in Liao.
In Liao, the belief in Pure Land was not unknown. The towering figure of Pure Land faith in the Khitan regime was Feizhuo 非浊 (?–1063), the Leader of Confession in the Temple of Fengfu (Bearing Blessings) in Yanjing, who was venerated as the Master of Purity and Wisdom. He spent much time and energy “collecting lost sutras and resuming the compilation of canons of wisdom.” One of the products of his great efforts was the twenty-volume Wangsheng ji往生集 (Collected writings on incarnation), of which Emperor Dao was very fond. The Emperor even “made himself the cover for the Book and wrote the preface … and slightly later he had it enshrined and included into the Buddhist Treasure.”13 Feizhuo was a very influential monk in the reigns of Emperors Xing and Dao. He was honorably given the purple clothing and appointed as the Leader of Central Buddhist Registry in the Upper Imperial City and of the Left Central Buddhist Registry in Yanjing. Later, the Emperors conferred upon him other prestigious titles such as the Minister of Imperial Entertainments, Grand Guardian of Imperial Inspection and Rectification, Grand Mentor, and Grand Protector.
Nor was the number of Buddhist who devoted themselves to the Vinaya School too small to be worth mentioning. Chengyuan 澄渊, who came from the same temple where Feizhuo lived, was renowned for his mastery of vinaya. He was the author of the 14-volume Sifen lü shanfan buque xingshi xiang jizhu四分律删繁补缺行事详集注 (Detailed and collected annotations on the selected acts in the light of Dharmagupta Vinaya). Considering the fact that Chengyuan’s work was an annotative supplement to Xingshi chao行事钞 (Transcription of selected acts in the light of Dharmagupta Vinaya), Chengyuan was very probably a successor of the Nanshan branch of Vinaya School. Additionally, Haishan, the guru of Avatamsaka teaching mentioned above, also had a good knowledge of the vinaya. Haishan did make contributions to the growth of Vinaya School in Liao by means of penning Jinzhu wu jieyi近注五戒仪 (Recent explanations of five precepts), Jinzhu ba jieyi近注八戒仪 (Recent explanations of eight precepts), Ziyuan shou jieyi自愿受戒仪 (The ceremony of receiving precepts voluntarily), the three-volume Fa puti xinjie ben发菩提心戒本 (An elaboration of Precepts of Bodhi-Mind), and the four-volume Dcheng chanhui yi大乘忏悔仪 (The ritual of Mahayanan confessions).
Where the Consciousness-Only School in Liao was concerned, Quanming 诠明 (later changed to Quanxiao 诠晓due to the taboo on using the Emperor’s name), a monk from the Temple of Minzhong (Commiseration and Loyalty) of Yanjing, was the leading figure. He “lectured on all Buddhist sutras and combined various teachings.” Surprised at Quanxiao’s erudition in Buddhist studies, Emperor Sheng conferred the title “Great Master without Intellectual Barricade” upon him. In total, Quanxiao produced 73 volumes of Buddhist writings, among which there were: Fahuajing xuanzan huigu tongjin chao法华经玄赞会古通今钞 (Complete explanations of profound odes to Lotus Sutra); Jingang bore jing xuanjiang huigu tongjin chao金刚般若经宣讲会古通今钞 (Complete explanations of lectures on the Diamond Sutra); Mile shasheng jing huigu tongjin chao弥勒上生经会古通今钞 (Complete explanations of Sutra on Maitreya’s Ascension to Tusita Heaven); Cheng weishi lun xiangjing youwei xin chao成唯识论详镜幽微新钞 (The new transcription of detailed and penetrative understanding of the Vijnaptimatratasiddhi Sastra); and Baifa lun jintai yifu百法论金台义府 (The golden terrace and doctrinal treasury embodied in Satadharma-Prakasamukha Sastra). He was a reputable scholar in the field of elaborating the thoughts of Xuanzang, the founding patriarch of the Consciousness-Only School, and Kuiji 窥基, one of the most significant disciples of Xuanzang.
Against the backdrop of flourishing Zen Buddhism in the Song dynasty, the Zen School in Liao was very depressing. Only two temples devoted themselves to the teaching of Zen: the Temple of Wukong (Understanding Emptiness) at the foot of Mount Tanzhe in Xishan of Yanjing, and the Temple of Ganhua (Spiritual Transformation) in Mount Pan of Ji Prefecture. The Temple of Wukong was originally the place where Zhetan, an ancient Zen master, practiced meditation. In the early Baojing reign of Emperor Jing, or in 969 A.D., the temple was given the name “Wukong.” In the 19th year of Tonghe (1001) of Emperor Sheng, it was renamed “Wanshou” (Imperishableness). In the Taiping reign, the name was changed to “Taiping” (Great Peace). In the Dakang reign of Emperor Dao, a new name, “Huayan” (Flower Ornament), was conferred upon the temple. The casual changes of name show the weakness of the Zen temple in Liao. Nor could renowned Zen monks be found in the Khitan regime. Even the Altar Sutra, which was the unmatchable gem of Zen teaching, was regarded as something fake and illusory when Quanxiao, or the “Great Master without Intellectual Barricade,” had all existing Buddhist sutras textually examined. The copies of Altar Sutra were all tragically burned. Frankly, the role that Zen School played in the Liao state was infinitesimal.
(C) Buddhism and socio-cultural development of Liao
What marked Buddhism’s influence on the Liao state’s socio-cultural development was the printing of the Khidan Buddhist Treasure (the complete collection of all existing Buddhist sutras) and the continuous inscription of Buddhist canons on steles in Fangshan (present-day Beijing). The work of printing Khidan Buddhist Treasure started in the first year of Taiping (1022) of Emperor Sheng. The incentive that initiated the huge work was the Khitan ruler’s obtainment of the Sichuan edition of the Kaibao Buddhist Treasure that prevailed in Song. In order to show that Liao was not culturally inferior to the Song Empire, the Khitan Emperor organized a great number of monks to collect as many existing Buddhist sutras as possible. The monks were required to try their utmost to supplement the written texts that were missing in the Song edition. In terms of the format of book, the Khitan edition was stricter, demonstrated in the transformation of book rolls into folio volumes. In the first year of Chongxi (1032) of Emperor Xing, Liao began printing the completed collection of Buddhist sutras. Thirty years later, or in the eighth year of Qingning (1062) of Emperor Dao, the printing work was successfully finished. In total, there were 589 sets of canons. These works were named the “Khitan Treasure” on the grounds that it was in this year that Liao resumed its ethnic national title, “Khitan.” The Khitan Treasure was printed in Yanjing, present-day Beijing, and introduced to ancient Korea. It played a great role in the Korean effort to recollect and rectify Buddhist sutras, which came to be Korean Buddhist Treasure.
As far as the work of inscribing Buddhist canons on steles in the Temple of Yunju of Fangshan was concerned, it was initiated by Jingwan 静琬 in Sui dynasty, and was stopped by war in the late Tang. In the seventh year of Taiping (1027) of Emperor Sheng, Han Shaofang, a prefectural official wrote a memorandum, in which he requested the work of inscription be resumed. The Emperor immediately allocated funds to rehabilitate the invaluable cultural work. Later, the Emperors Xing and Dao also gave substantial supports to the work. In the third year of Jingning (1057), the craftsmen finished inscribing the Maha Prajna Paramita Sutra, which consisted of more than 600 pieces of stele. This newly-inscribed sutra, together with existing 2,730 pieces of stele, constituted the Great Four Sutras. Sixty years later, or the seventh year of Tianqing (1117), Emperor Tianzuo had 180 huge pieces of stele that were processed in the reign of Emperor Dao and 4,080 small ones that were rectified and inscribed by the Master of Tongli (Illuminating Principles) in the Temple stored in underground grottoes. On the site of the buried steles, a pagoda made of bricks was built and marked. It was Liao’s greatest effort to collect, sort out and rectify the existing Buddhist sutras. These stone sutras were textually and historically invaluable. The printed editions of Khitan Treasure have all been lost. Nevertheless, we can still draw a broad outline of the Treasure thanks to the well-preserved stone inscriptions. The work of printing and inscribing Buddhist sutras consumed a great deal of the Liao regime’s manpower and energy. In this sense, it was an extremely significant cultural event in the history of Liao. It can be clearly said that the Liao state made a great contribution to the protection of Buddhist culture.
The history of the powerful Khitan state was survived by many Buddhist temples. For example, the gigantic Buddhist architecture represented by the Lower and Upper Temples of Huayan (Flower Ornament), both of which are key cultural relics under the Chinese state’s strict protection, are still in present-day Datong City. Among the Liao’s Buddhist architectures, the pagoda is the most well-known. The wooden pagoda in the Temple of Fogong (Buddha’s Palace), located in the Ying County of Shanxi, is the oldest existing Pagoda made exclusively of wood. The Buddhist grotto was another tradition that Liao inherited from Northern Buddhism. As far as we know, the “One-Thousand-Buddha Grottoes” in the Temple of Lingfeng (Soul Mountain) of Chifeng in Inner Mongolia, and Chaoyang City and Temple of Houzhao of Liaoning, can all be ascribed to Liao. Even in Datong, where the internationally esteemed Yungang Grottoes are located, a Liao Buddhist Grotto can also be found.
Due to the adoration from the ruling hierarchy, Buddhism extended efficiently down to rural communities. In order to support Buddhist activities, the followers organized many Buddhist societies. Such grassroots Buddhist organizations chose a superintendent of the local temple or a reputable Buddhist layman to be the head. Under the leadership of these local celebrities, Buddhist organizations did their best to raise funds for Buddhist events. Some organizations were named after the activity that they supported. For example, there was the Sharipu Society in the Temple of Xianlu (Immortal Dew) of Yanjing, on the grounds that the Society was specially created for the placement of Buddha’s relics. The Community of Monastic Inscription could be found in Fangshan’s Temple of Yunju, because it played an exclusive role in assisting the work of inscribing Buddhist sutra on steles. A special society was formed for fund-raising when the Tripitaka was being printed. Such Buddhist communities played quite significant roles in bridging between the monks and laymen. Not only did they give impetus to the growth of Buddhism in Liao, but they also disseminated the Buddhist faith among rural residents.
At that time the faith in Amitabha, which preached the rebirth in paradise of Western Pure Land, attracted the greatest number of followers. Beliefs in Buddha the Burning Light, Buddha the Great Healer, Bodhisattva in White, and so on were also prevalent, though they were not as brilliant as the faith in Pure Land was. Buddhist faith greatly influenced the folk customs in the region of Liao. For example, women played the “Buddha masquerade” by coating their faces with gold powder, and many people chose to nickname their pets using Buddhist names such as of Triratna (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha), Bodhisattva, Manjusri, Medicine Buddha and so on.
